Kartik Mathur

Student at Manipal University

Portrayal of emotion and dealing with serious conditions in Persepolis-The Sheep

Marjane Satrapi’s world of black and white in Persepolis gives the readers an idea about its seriousness from the very first page. The seriousness and the emotion attached with each chapter are different. As soon as one starts with “The Sheep”, the heading makes it look very humorous. One cannot expect seriousness from a chapter which has the image of two sheep in the heading, and when one reaches the end of this chapter, it seems to be one of the most emotional chapters in the entire book.The first page (Page-62, Marjane Satrapi, Persepolis) of the chapter shows young Marjane, her father and her uncle Anoosh in the single frame. The background is dark, a lamp and a painting can be seen around the small space and a small table with a cup of tea and a cigarette emphasizes on the very idea of a conversation taking place. There is a stool on which her father is sitting and a sofa which looks more luxurious than the tool and on which her uncle is sitting, it gives an image that he is their guest. The young girl is seen sitting on her uncle’s lap, it clearly shows how close she is and how strong a bond she is sharing with the man, not just because she is sitting on his lap but she is doing so in the presence of her father. The chapter’s first scene starts with an idea of showing seriousness, as the reader moves on to the different blocks in the same page they could see how it ends by shifting the whole attention to her crying  and the two men standing in the background are zoomed out. It shows how Marjane concentrates on the emotions of a person.The next page of the chapter (Page-63, Marjane Satrapi, Persepolis) basically speaks about the personal life of the young girl which gets affected due to the situation of turmoil in her country. In this page not even once is the young girl smiling, as soon as she enters the frame walking there is a kind of unhappiness on her face. The second frame shows how one of the two friends of her tell about the other leaving the country and the young girl has an expression which shows the sign of thinking as well as the sign of bewilderment. In the third frame she tries to put forward a point of hers which she thinks can restrain her friend from going, but she remains unsuccessful. There is a kind of pattern shown in these blocks; the first row has three blocks or frames, which shows the passing of time in a fast and quick manner. The second row has only two frames; it shows how slowly the time is passing in the mind of the young girl, her conversation with her friend is given more space because in her mind that is one of the most precious thing as it also tells us that she likes him. The third row again has quick passing of time but the last frame is bigger as compared to the other two, as it is the end of her small tale of love and leads to an emotional breakdown. The last frame shows her in black, almost everything black and a point is made and an emotion is shown, an emotion, a feeling of separation. The second last page of the chapter (Page-70, Marjane Satrapi, Persepolis) is one of the most emotional pages of the chapter. The opening frame is only one, it shows the importance of the matter. It starts with her writing “that was my last meeting with my beloved Anoosh”, it gives goosebumps when this part is revealed. The news is also brought to us in the medium of a newspaper and not by any person as the newspaper is a trusted source and this kind of news is sensational to be on the front page. The usage of newspaper as a source of this news is to lay emphasis on the seriousness of the matter. The two bread swans gifted by him to her is kept over the newspaper as it shows how important he and his gift was to her. The second row shows her encounter with her god for the first time. The god, who is a white coloured creature, a sign of hope in the whole of the darkness means nothing to her now and she asks him not to come to her again. The page ends with her shouting in the last frame all alone. A sign of emotional outburst and also shows that one has to stand alone in the hardest of the situations and face it all by themselves as no god or any other figure will do actual help. The seriousness and the emotional part of the incidents are portrayed very carefully by Marjane in this chapter- The Sheep.

French notes

              UNITE A1.1 I SE PRESENTER 1) SALUTATIONSBonjour / Bonsoir / SalutMonsieur, Madame, Mesdames, MessieursComment allez vous ?/Comment vas-tu ?Je vais très bien merci, et vous/ et toi ?Je suis content, heureux, joyeux. Tout va très bien.Je ne vais pas bien : je suis malade ; je suis triste ; je suis trop fatigué parce que j'étudie beaucoup; je suis stressé à cause des examens ; j'ai faim ; j'ai soif ; j'ai froid ; j'ai chaud ; j'ai mal à la tête ;Je me sens bien, calme et en pleine forme / mal, triste, fatigué...Vous : forme polieTu : plus familier2) LE NOM et PRENOMComment vous appelez-vous ? /Comment t'appelles-tu ?Je m'appelle.....................et vous ? /Et toi ?Quel est votre/ton nom de famille ? Quel est votre/ton prénom ?Mon nom est....Mon prénom est....Comment cela s'épèle ? Comment ça s'écrit ?(savoir prononcer les lettres de l'alphabet)Enchanté(e)3) L'ORIGINED'où venez-vous ?/ D'où viens-tu ?Je viens de...........................Ex : Je viens de FranceEx : Je viens de l'IndeJe viens de + pays féminin (la France, l'Inde, la Belgique...) . Ex : je viens de FranceJe viens du+ pays masculin (le Maroc, le Mali, le Japon...) . Ex : je viens du JaponJe viens des + pays au pluriel ( les Etats Unis, les Emirats, les Pays Bas, les Iles du Pacifique...). Ex : Je viens des Etats Unis.4) LE LIEU OU LA DATE DE NAISSANCEOù êtes-vous né(e) ? Où es-tu né(e) ?Je suis né (e) à ….............(ville) en.................... (pays féminin)/au................ (pays masuclin)/aux.............. (pays au pluriel), dans................. (la région)dans le nord/sud/est/ouest de …...............................Ex : Je suis née à Udupi en IndeEx:Je suis né à Casablanca au MarocEx : Je suis née à New York aux Etats UnisEx : Je suis né dans le Kerala, dans le sud de l'Inde.Quand êtes-vous né(e) ? Quand es-tu né(e) ? Quelle est votre/ ta date de naissance ?Je suis né le ….(jour) ….........(mois) ….......(année)Ex : Je suis née le 20 juin 1995/ je suis né le vingt juin mille neuf cent quatre-vingt-quinze.. 5) L'ÂGEQuel âge avez-vous ? Quel âge as-tu ?J'ai …................ansEx : J'ai vingt ans.Attention, on utilise « avoir » et pas « être » comme en anglais pour dire l'âge !Quelle est votre/ta nationalité ?Je suis indien /indienne ; français/française ; belge ; anglais/anglaise ; américain/américaine ; japonais/japonaise ; allemand/allemande ...(voir la fiche pays-nationalité-langue en annexe)6) LE DOMICILEOù habitez-vous ? Où habites-tu ?J'habite à................(ville)en.................... (pa ys féminin)/au................ (pays masuclin)/aux.............. (pays au pluriel), dans................. (la région)dans le nord/sud/est/ouest de …...............................Ex : J'habite à Bruxelles en BelgiqueEx : J'habite à Manipal en IndesEx : J'habite à Ryad, aux Emirats7) LES LANGUESQuelle(s) langue(s) parlez-vous ? Quelle(s) langue(s) parles-tu ?Je parle............................... anglais, hindi, kannada, tamul et un peu français.(voir la fiche pays-nationalité-langue en annexe)Je parle un peu/bien/ très bien /couramment/le français.Je ne parle pas du tout le chinois.Quelle est ta langue maternelle ?Ma langue maternelle est le...Pour moi, l'anglais est une langue étrangère.8) LA PROFESSION = le métierQuelle est votre/ ta profession ?Je suis étudiant/étudiante ; professeur ; artiste (chanteur/chanteuse, peintre, écrivain,musicien/musicienne, danseur/danseuse, acteur/actrice, réalisateur/ réalisatrice) ; politicien/politicienne, journaliste ; philosophe ; cuisinier/cuisinière, ingénieur, homme /femme d'affaire ; homme/ femme au foyer ; manager...9) LE STATUT MARITALEtes-vous marié (e)? Es-tu marié(e) ?Oui, je suis marié(e).Non, je ne suis pas marié(e) : je suis célibataire.Non, je ne suis plus marié(e), je suis séparé/divorcé10) LA FAMILLEAvez-vous des enfants ? As-tu des enfants ?Non, je n'ai pas d'enfant. JE N' AI PAS DEOui j'ai ….fils et ….fille(s).Ex : Oui j'ai un fils et deux filles.(voir la fiche famille en annexe)11) LES COORDONNEESQuelles sont vos/tes coordonnées ?Quel est ton adresse email ?C'est …...........@ …..............................@ = « arobaze »gmail.com ; . = « point »Quel est ton numéro de téléphone ?C'est le 00 33 01 25 34 67 .L'indicatif des régions : 01, 02, 03, 04, 05.On dit son numéro en citant les chiffres deux par deux.Quelle est ton adresse postale ?C'est : ( numéro de rue) , ( nom de la rue/avenue/chaussée/place..................)(le code postal) (la ville)(Le pays)Ex : 1, rue de Jeanne D'Arc    76 000 Rouen    FRANCE12 ) LES LOISIRS ET LES CENTRES D'INTERÊTSQu'aimez-vous ? Qu'aimes-tu ? /Qu'est-ce que vous aimez ? Qu'est-ce que tu aimes ?J'AIME + Nom..............Ex : j'aime la musique, la danse, la nature , la bonne cuisineAIMER/ ADORER + verbe à l'infinitifJ'aime jouer au football, au cricket, regarder la télévision ou regarder un film au cinéma, dessiner, peindre, chanter, faire du sport, faire du shopping, dormir , étudier.Ex : J'aime lire et écrire. J'adore voyager.Quels sont tes loisirs préférés? Mes loisirs préférés sont la natation, le cyclisme et l'escalade.Quels sont tes centres d'intérêts ?Je suis intéressé(-e) par le sport et la culture.Quels sont tes goûts ?Je suis passionné par le football.Quelles sont tes activités préférées ?Je déteste souffrir = je n'aime pas souffrir.13) DESCRITPTIONS PHYSIQUE ET MORALEQui êtes-vous en trois mots ? Qui es-tu en trois mots ?Description physique :Je suis : petit (-e)/grand(e) → je mesure …. mètres fin (e), mince/ bien portant (-e)maigre/gros → je pèse ... kilosbeau(belle)/ moche, laid(-e)jeune /vieux (vieille)Mes cheveux sont : longs/courts ; frisés/bouclés/raides /crêpus ; noirs, châtains clairs ou foncés, blonds, roux, blancs,gris.Ma peau est claire, blanche, basanée, brune, noireJe porte des lunettes, une barbe, une moustache, des vêtements (voir la fiche vêtements en annexe)Description morale :Je suis :intelligent(-e)/ bête ;gentil (-ille)/méchant(-e) joyeux (-euse), content / tristeheureux/ malheureuxamusant(e), drôle/ sérieux(-ieuse) ; etc....aventurier(-ière)/ casanier (-ière)travailleur, dynamique / paresseux(-se)sociable/ timide, renfermé(-e)sympathique / antipathiquegénéreux/ égoïste, avareoptimiste/ pessimisteconfiant/méfianthumble/vantard (-e), orgueilleux (-euse)ouvert(-e) d'esprit / étroit(-e) d'esprit enthousiaste/rabat-joieoptimiste/ pessimiste14) LES CONCLUSIONS POLIESMerci, enchanté de vous/te rencontrer.Enchanté de faire votre/ta connaissance.Au plaisir de vous revoir.A demain !A bientôt !A.......... (jour) ; ex : à lundi !Au revoirBonne journée/ bonne soirée/bonne nuit !15) DEMANDER ET REPONDRE POLIMENTPourrais-je + verbe à l'infinitif…..., s'il vous plait ?Ex : pourrais-je avoir un stylo ? Pourrais-je avoir un café s'il-vous-plait ?Puis-je +verbe à l'infinitif ?Ex : puis-je entrer dans la classe ?Pouvez-vous répéter s'il-vous-plait, je ne comprends pas ?S'il te plait S'il vous plaitVoilà / voici, tenez, je vous en prie (quand on donne quelque chose)Merci /de rien / avec plaisir16) AUTRES MOTS DE POLITESSE

USTAD THE TIGER

There is a lot of controversy regarding the events that were thought to be caused by Ustad the tiger. Ustad, also known as T-24, once roamed in a 40 sq.km territory in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan. Ustad was accused of killing a forest guard, Rampal Saini on May 8, 2015, and was also accused of two other killings.It all started at 5 pm on that unfateful day when Saini’s wife had gone into the tiger’s territory to illegally collect firewood and grass. When she saw the tiger she dropped her load and ran to her husband. Saini then ignored his fellow guard's warnings and ventured more than 500 meters into the forest, which was a violation of the NTCA’s rules, with nothing but a stick with him for defense. He was then attacked and killed by an animal at 5:30 pm.There is a lot of speculation that it could have been Sultan, Ustad’s son, who shares the same territory. There were also no eyewitnesses that saw the killing. After a couple of hours, Ustad was spotted sniffing the bloody body of Rampal Saini, as tigers are known to do, and was branded a man-eater. Ustad was then taken away from his wife and children and was put in isolation in Sajjangarh zoo.After that, a serious of events followed, which indicated that the conviction of Ustad was more the fault of humans than the tiger himself. After the post-mortem it was declared that the death by a bite of an animal with a ‘long, canine tooth’, implicating that it could have been either a tiger, leopard, a bear, or a hyena ( all of whom were found in the reserve).On June 2, another report showed that the Rajasthan forest department reacted harshly and that they did not follow standard guidelines. It had also been stated that the victims were deep in Tiger territory and the humans were at fault for trespassing.Another factor that proves that It was the human's fault was that there were at least 38 hotels and resorts that were in violation of maintaining a 500-meter buffer zone. Many claims that the reason for this was so that the hotels could lure the Tigers closer and giving the tourists a ‘premium’ experience of seeing the tiger up close. There have also been cases where a tiger has climbed over the walls to be fed in front of gawking tourists. There are also some claims that there might be a political reason to all this, as proper investigations would have meant that the opportunities for tourism would have diminished, resulting in the loss of crores of rupees.The truth is that Ustad was not a man-eater as a man-eating tiger will continue to prowl and selectively kill only humans, which was not the case of Ustad as he had never been accused of attacking even a single pilgrim. Tourism had failed the tiger and had falsely accused him and had condemned him to live in solitude.

The condition of citizens during war a phenomenon which the society as a whole faces

 Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis deals with the serious issue of war and its effect on the countrymen in a very wide scale. The chapter “Key,” is one such significant chapter which throws light on the condition of the countrymen and the situation created by the authorities to get their job done. The heading of the chapter gives an idea that the space which the reader is about to enter is a different space, a dimension of its own and the key must open some door! In the name of religion and pleasure many such keys are given away to people, false promises are made and dreams which promise of reality but unreal are talked about.The first page of the chapter (Page-94) starts off with a piece of writing on the top of the sketch which talks about the Iraqi Army conquering the city of Khorramshahr, it also talks about the modern arms and excellent quality of the Iraqi Army, which is soon followed by the praise of quantity of the Iranian Army and soon after that we see the sketch of Marjane holding the newspaper and the newspaper contains the heading “Today’s Martyrs,” the visible two pages of the newspaper is filled with images. It is a proper display of the flaw in the Iranian authorities, the emphasis on the quantity but not on quality makes it clear that these soldiers are not properly trained! An expression of bewilderment is shown on Marajane’s face which continues in the next frame as well, the third frame shows the mother talking about the building of nuptial chambers by the authorities on the streets and making sure that every citizen gets to know about the martyrs. The fifth frame carries a very strong message, the death of a huge number of virgin fighters makes it clear that the age factor in the army is astonishing, which means most of these fighters were very young. The sketch shows various chambers with faces shows the obsession of the authorities with religion, if the same attention was paid on quality of arms and proper training then so many young lives would not have been lost! The last two frames shows that how the child is unhappy with her mother for making her dry her hair when the newspaper, a source of factual evidence shows that there are so many Martyrs, she even questions her mother regarding it on which the Persian Philosophy of Resignation is talked about.The shock of the child brings to the reader a very essential point, the point of how society is needed to behave when a war is going on. The child’s disappointment with the mother for not sympathising with the martyrs was visible because that is how she thought the society wanted her and others to react. The proof of which is given (Page-95, Marjane Satrapi, Persepolis), the full page is black, it shows the darkness, a colour of mourning. The text on the top of the page clears it out to the readers about the situation under which the citizens are influenced. These small school going children are made to go on funeral marches and are also subjected to display the mourning by physically hitting themselves, which again is a part of religious belief (Page-96, Marjane Satrapi, Persepolis). The involvement of religion in warfare and social life is evidently visible. It can be stated that the war is entwined with religion! The idea of involvement of religion in war does not stop there (Page-99, Marjane Satrapi, Persepolis), shows clearly how the temptation of heaven is shown to young boys so that they are ready to join the army. The fourth frame of the page shows the key which is branded as the key of heaven by the authorities, the fifth and the sixth frame shows the face of Mrs. Nasrine in pain, a situation in which no mother would want to be. The sixth frame shows that she still has the key in one of her hands and the tea in the other which she is not drinking but in utter shock and sadness is sitting there and recalling how difficult it was to raise her children.The war is a social affair where the economic background of the citizens plays an important role. The last page of the chapter has a haunting sketch in the first frame. The page has the most disturbing image(Page-102,Marjane Satrapi, Persepolis), the blackness merged with a white background which is a show of light, it can be said it looks an image of bodies flying up in the sky, going towards their destiny which unfortunately isn’t the ‘Paradise,’ but death in its worst form! The keys are still hung around their necks and the text in the top talks about how the poor children are promised of better lives and are forced into the army; their lives come to an end at the minefields. The other image, the other frame show how Marjane got the permission to attend her first party, a difference in the social class of the citizens promise them different lives during war! But all are the victims of it.

The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde

R. L. Stevenson’s novel ‘The strange case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde’ set in late 19th century Englandis an example of Victorian fiction.The novel explores the strength of human ability in the field of science. The novel is composed of various elements like allegory, gothic novel and Victorian literature.The novel starts with the name of the character and their social status.All throughout the story there is a blurring between the rich and the poor. There is a lot of sexual undertone that is subtly hinted in the novel.The novel could also be an allegory for drug addiction which was a major problem in the Victorian era. There is a third person omniscient voice which is authorial. The novel tells us about the fine line between the supernatural (gothic) and the material (science) world.The chapters are episodic in nature and there is a slow reveal of the events. The story revolves around the duality of the central character.Mr Utterson, aprominent lawyeris a unique character and represents the ideals of a Victorian gentleman. We see the incidents through his point of view. We believe his theories because of hisserious nature. The story revolves around Mr Utterson trying to find out what is going on between his friend Dr Jekyll and the mysterious Hyde who is a murderer.R. L. Stevenson has chosen the names of the characters through the emotion that it evokes on hearing them like Utterson or Hyde. The ‘Story of the door’ indicates spaces. The various themes of the novel are friendship, fight between good and evil and science versus nature. Dr Jekyll was a member of the upper class who was like by his peers. He had a dark wild side to him. He concealed his pleasures for the sake of his career and conformed to Victorian society. He felt like an imposter within his own body.He was torn between his attempts to be good and his evil fantasies.He wanted to embark on immoral adventures and escape social judgement.He finds out about the duplicity of life and wanted to separate his two natures and he creates a potion that lets him transform into Hyde, who is his evil alter ego.The only thing that connected Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde are the memories that they shared. Their personalities were in stark contrast. Overtime Hyde appears as and when he wishes and Jekyll loses control over him.Although Jekyll is horrified by his actions, he continues to take the potion. Earlier he had to repress his true self, emotions to lead a restrained and respectable life. But now he lived his darker urges through Hyde.(1)Edward Hyde is everything Jekyll cannot be in fear of social criticism.Although Hyde was physically younger and smaller than Jekyll he awakens disgust and terror among people. Hyde gives an impression of deformity but with no nameable actual deformity. The words small and large were used to describe Hyde and Jekyll respectively and the audience subconsciously cannot conclude that they are the same person. The contrast between them is very sharp. What Jekyll did was unscientific and outside the bounds of social norms. There is a lot of emphasis done on sight. There are numerous arrays of documents which link to the story like the handwriting, cheque, key etc.The final chapter indicates the moral struggle of fate versus evil. Jekyll tapered with the supernatural and now had to pay for it. The heart of the issue unravels at a medium pace and then ends with the death of Jekyll.The final word of Jekyll’s letter indicates that Jekyll lives in writing even though Hyde had power over him. The true part of Jekyll dies when the letter is finished.There is no voice of the narrator or Utterson after this as Jekyll’s truth or his life is in his very letter which came to an end.At the end of the novel, there is a third voice which tells us about Jekyll and Hyde as separate people. They are divided by hatred. Jekyll was suffering from a deep identity crisis. Jekyll takes the final call and kills himself because Hyde faced charge as an outlaw. By the end of the novel, the voice shifts from that of a doting father to anger.This novel was an inspiration to comic characters like Dr Bruce banner and the incredible Hulk which portrayed the similar case of a split personality.                                                                                                (2)

Persepolis

MarjaneSatrapi’s memoir, Persepolis, is an eye-opener of sorts. The book gets people thinking about how horrible the religious situation in Iran was back then. She also talks about some other issues through the book. Drug abuse for example. She brings out this awareness through her own past experiences, in this book. In this essay, I am writing about Marjane’s character and her talks with god. Through these meetings with god it seems like she is trying to tell us something more. Something about her beliefs in god and how they played an important role in the way she thinks.The main reason, to me, that people follow a god is for hope of a better day or maybe just anything that is hoped for. People, very often,believe that god will help us solve our problems when people should be solving them themselves instead. Gods give us hope without even saying a word. It is strange the way a god is so blindly followed. MarjaneSatrapi, I believe, has portrayed this characteristic in the character. The author shows us the hope that the character had in god mostly through the conversations they have together, but it feels like there is a different idea behind those scenes.The author could be conveying the idea of god not being the saviour of any situation but rather people themselves.I would feel that once, rather if, someone has realised that there is no hope even after all this prayer and worship they would understand or think about the more probable reality of the situation. But the reality of that situation is not as such. God is looked at as much more superior than any being on the planet, which is a very big problem. It could definitely make people feel like their existence is not that important, which in turn could make them not understand the importance of humans on the planet. It is like they put themselves down. In the first conversation between the character and god (Pg. 8, Persepolis), I believe, MarjaneSatrapiis bringing out the idea of how people, including herself, see it necessary to give god an explanation, and also how having the idea of god puts a certain kind of unnecessary pressure on the person worshiping. What is more interesting is the line used in the very next frame- “Except for my grandmother I was the only one who believed in myself.”(Pg.8, Persepolis). Considering the fact that god told her that he believed in her in the previous frame, it seems like MarjaneSatrapi is telling us that the character’s belief in god was already not so strong. The character even portrays this when god and her are talking and she keeps telling him to change the conversation even when he does, (Pg. 13, 14, Persepolis). Slightly after, after the character overheard her parents talking (Pg. 16, Persepolis), she tells god that she wants to take part in the demonstration and he is given a look of sudden shock, like what she was saying was horribly wrong. In the next frame he walks out, as if not interested in being a part of the demonstration. The author at this point, I believe, is bringing out the idea of god being the whole reason behind these riots, considering the fact that she is experiencing a religious war. Along with the idea of god and religion there has to exist the idea of a better and worse one, it seems.Often it is the idea of religion and god that give birth to the biggest wars, just like in the book. At the end of her conversation with her parents (Pg. 17, Persepolis), when she asks where god is, I think, is because she realised what the war had to do with, which is god, and her belief disappears. She entered a space of reality, the truth behind the situation. Even when the character talks about how god and Marx look alike (Pg. 13, Persepolis), it feels like she is trying to tell us that Marx was the one who should have been considered a god. Again, showing us how her belief in god was almost dead. The time MarjaneSatrapi faced these religious issues was when they were at their peak. Though, these issues still exist in Iran and many other parts of the world. Not with the same kind of violence as what we have read in the book, but as conservative as in the book.  

Analyzing 3 problems in Greek Philosophy

The first problem relevant to the history of Greek philosophy is the placement of Heraclitus’s philosophical theory. To further clarify the problem, the argument that will be posed here will claim that Heraclitus’s theory is anachronistic to that of the Milesian school of Philosophy, and should not belong alongside other philosophers such as Democritus and Pythagoras Pre-Socratic philosophers were concerned with the world as a whole and trying to define the origin of the universe. One of the earlier schools of pre- Socratic philosophy was the Milesian school of philosophy. The philosophers of this school, such as Thales and Anaximenes focused on trying to explain the origin of the universe as a result of natural causes, such as water and air respectively. Heraclitus, in his philosophical theories, attempted to explain the cause for the universe as a result of natural causes, that cause being fire. In support of this argument, Frederick Copleston mentions that “now, it might seem at first sight that Heraclitus is merely ringing the changes on the old Ionian theme as though because Thales made Reality to be Water and Anaximenes Air, Heraclitus, simply in order to find something different from his predecessors, fixed on Fire.” ( Copleston 1993, p. 41) When compared to other philosophical doctrines during his period such as that of Pythagoras and Democritus, Heraclitus doctrine stands out. This is because both Pythagoras and Democritus have infused mathematical and scientific concepts in their doctrines respectively, which detaches itself from those theories of the Milesian school, in which the concept was based on natural causes and not proper scientific theories. Thus, I feel, that in order to understand the part of Heraclitus’s philosophy, that explains the origin of the universe with the help of the substance fire, it should be studied alongside the philosophies of Thales, Anaximenes, etc, and not alongside the more ‘advanced’ theories of philosophers such as Democritus and Pythagoras. The second problem in Greek philosophy that will be dealt with is the historical misinterpretation of Sophism. This particular school focused more on teaching rhetoric in cities such as Athens, which was a major shift from the previous schools of philosophy. It was because of this reason that it came under much criticism by philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. As these two philosophers are considered to be the greatest philosophers to ever exists, their works and texts have in many ways become axiomatic in the way in which we perceive and interpret ancient and medieval Greek philosophy. Thus, while studying Sophism, there is a certain misrepresentation as many have taken a biased view on sophism and has perceived it through the works of Aristotle and Plato- "It is particularly through the opposition to Socrates and Plato that the Sophists have come into such disrepute that the word now usually signifies that, by false reasoning, some truth is either refuted and made dubious, or something false is proved and made plausible."( Copleston 1993, p. 85) Due to this, the most valuable contributions of Sophism have often gone unnoticed. It is through sophism that a certain transition can be identified. The pre-Socratic philosophers focused on the universal aspect of philosophy, in an effort to find the origin of the universe and what it was made up of. This objectivity was later replaced by the sophists, who preferred a more subjective approach, instead exploring the ideas of  self.  Thus it is through sophism that a certain paradigm shift, from the object to the subject, can be identified. Another factor that needs to be noted is that many of the afore-mentioned ‘axiomatic’ work by the hegemonic philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle and Socrates focused on the self rather than the object. Thus their works and texts wouldn’t have come into existence if the transition from the object to the subject hadn’t have happened in the first place. Therefore even though the ideas that emerged out of sophism were used by these philosophers as a foundation, the sophist has not been given the due credit they deserve. The last problem within Greek philosophy discussed within this paper will be regarding the under-appreciation of the Spartan philosopher Lycurgus and his philosophical teachings. Lycurgus was a Spartan philosopher who lived around 800 BC. He is credited with the establishment and the transformation of Sparta as a normal Greek city-state, to a highly militarized one. Some of the values that were put forth by him were similar to the traditional stoic values, for example, its emphasis on personal ethics such as attempting to control the ability to feel pleasure or pain. Also, stoicism was greatly influenced by the teachings of Socrates. The argument that I wish to pose is that the predominant values of stoicism belonged to Lycurgus, but due to the hegemonic presence of Socrates and taking into consideration the historical events of the time, those values have now been credited to Socrates. According to Frederick Copleston, “the first point to be stressed is the need for seeing any philosophical system in its historical setting and connections.” ( Copleston 1993, p. 8) Keeping this reference in mind, Socrates rose to prominence around the same time as when the Peloponnesian war took place ( around 430 BC to 400 BC), which was a civil war between Athens and Sparta. A war between states is not only a conflict of military forces but also a conflict of ideas. Due to the highly hostile situation at the time, any work by Socrates would most definitely be influenced by the war. Thus, considering the predominance of Socrates in terms of public image, any work of his commenting on the ideas or the philosophy of Sparta, and thus of Lycurgus, could have been interpreted as being as Socrates' own work rather than the work of some other philosopher. As Athens at the time was the hub of philosophical development, it can be easily interpreted that the Athenians believed that the stoic ideas developed out of the works of Socrates rather than the work of some philosopher who belonged to their immediate enemy. In conclusion, the entire canon of western philosophy is not watertight and definitely, has some problems. Some of these problems have been analyzed here and could be explored further. This audacious attempt to find problems within western philosophy should not shift away from the importance of this epoch in terms of its relevance on future philosophical debate. Thus, we can say that the philosophical doctrines to come out of Greek philosophy can be considered as bedrock or a foundation for much of the philosophical debate in the contemporary era. REFERENCES- Copleston, Frederick. 1993. A History of Philosophy. Double Day : New York

The Song of the Earth

The song of the Earth is a book that is written by Jonathan Bate. It was published in the year 2000. This essay will mainly focus on the first chapter of the book, titled “Going, Going”. The relevance of this book, in relation to this essay, is that this work can be considered as one of the most important texts in the existent discourse on Eco-criticism. The main focus of this essay is to paraphrase the main themes that can be identified in the first chapter. Jonathan Bate, in this chapter, examines the relationship between ‘nature’ and ‘culture’ and the transition in its meaning due to modernization, by taking some of the prose works of both Jane Austen and Thomas Hardy. The first theme that will be identified in this essay is using culture to approach Jane Austen’s texts.. A common misconception when analyzing the works of Austen and Hardy would be correlating them with the terms ‘culture’ and ‘nature’ respectively. One argument posed for the argument above would be the different and contrasting meanings of ‘culture’ that has been given in English dictionaries from the Renaissance period to the 18th century.  The changing nature of the term, from associating it with a piece of land, to associating the same with a more scientific approach, shows the advancement of the society- The word's path from common currency in the context of agricultural subsistence to technical usage in biological research is itself a little allegory of the march to modernity. ( Bate 2000, p. 4) The above-mentioned transition in the meaning of culture is not relevant in the works of Jane Austen though. Jonathan Bate has taken several references from her texts in order through which we can identify that for Austen, ‘culture’ was still associated with nature, rather than with intellectual capabilities. For example, he took the character of Emma Woodhouse, who was from one of Jane Austen’s novels and analyzed an excerpt in which her views were predominant. Thus, ‘verdure’ was associated with the damp English weather, while ‘culture’ for her, as previously mentioned, was associated with farming methods. Thus we can say that for Jane Austen, ‘culture’ was always explored through the elements of scenery and nature, rather than to do with intellectual capabilities or societal ethics. Another  theme relevant in many of Jane Austen’s prose works is the predominance of characters having an inherent feeling of belonging to nature. Mr. Knightley, for instance, is considered as an epitome of a person belonging with nature. While, other characters such as Fanny, have been shown as having a sympathetic approach towards nature. So, we can say that- The poet has a special bond with rustic life because it is in the country that the essential passions of the heart 'find a better soil' and in the rural condition that 'the passions of men are incorporated with the beautiful and permanent forms of nature ( Bate 2000, p. 12) Thus we can say that while analyzing the portrayal of characters in Jane Austen’s novels, the essence of romanticism and emotionalism, in relation to nature, are attached to them. The other major theme that will be paraphrased in this essay will be the position of Thomas Hardy in relation to the changing concept of ‘nature’, taking into reference the book ‘Woodlanders’. Within this text, the concept of ‘environment’ has also had a transition, from associating it with a natural landscape or a picturesque view to a more definitive version embedded in social and biological concerns. Charles Darwin’s theory of the ‘survival of the fittest’ may have become axiomatic in the way we might have approached ‘environment’. Thomas Hardy, on the other hand, in his document ‘Novels of Character and Environment’, attempted to understand fitness through balance and oldness- He placed mobile new men and advanced ideas in opposition to rooted types and traditional ways. The irreconcilable clash between the forces of tradition and of innovation is at the core of his tragic vision. ( Bate 2000, p. 14) The distinction between nature and science is also present in the characters in the afore-mentioned novel- ‘Woodlanders’. The nature-loving male protagonist Giles Winterbourne and the scientific approach used by Edred Fitzpiers are allegorical to the above-mentioned concepts respectively. We can especially identify the scientific trope through Edred due to his characteristic of always using a mechanical device such as an eyeglass or a telescope to perceive nature.  Therefore, we can say that the reason why Jonathan Bate has emphasized on the works of both Jane Austen and Thomas Hardy is that both of them, in many ways, chose to aggrandize a society living in close association with nature, rather than a world which was conquered by modernization and industrialization-   Austen stands for a lost world of elegance, of empire-line dresses, of good manners, of ladylikeness and gentlemanliness in large and beautiful houses. Hardy, meanwhile, represents nostalgia for a simple, honest rustic way of life among hedgerows, haystacks and sturdy English oak trees. Together they stand for the imagined better life of both the higher and the lower classes in a world where there is no place for the motor car.  ( Bate 2000, p. 2) In conclusion, the texts and the works of both Jane Austen and Thomas Hardy should be understood and interpreted in their historical context. This is  they were on the brink of modernity due to the industrial revolution. Thus their focus on the appreciation of nature is understandable. Also, as the inclusion of Philip Larke's poem ‘Going, Going’, at the start of the essay by Jonathan Bate, is extremely creative as it is in close association with the major themes of the essay, as they are all exploring and describing the possibility of the loss of nature due to industrialization. REFERENCE—  Jonathan Bate, “Going, Going” in The Song of the Earth. Bassingstoke and Oxford: Picador, 2000. pp. 1-23.

The Death of the Author

‘The Death of the Author’ is an essay that was written by Roland Barthes in 1967, which is one of the most important texts in the discourse of post-structuralism. In his essay, Roland Barthes argues against the traditional custom of taking into consideration the intention of the author when interpreting a text. This essay will be an attempt to paraphrase the main themes that have been voiced in ‘The Death of the Author’. Barthes examines the relationship between the author and their text and claims that the biographical factors surrounding the author, such as his personality, his passions etc, should not be relevant when interpreting a text. In fact, he says that the author should dissociate from the text completely as it would only be possible then, for the text to create an identity of its own, and for it to flourish- Writing is that neutral, composite, oblique space where our subject slips away, the negative where all identity is lost, starting with the very identity of the body writing. ( page 142) He uses the example of a storyteller or a narrator, in relation to an author, and informs us on how the storyteller would only be commended on their performance and not their personal genius, the latter being the case for an author. Barthes claims that the ‘author’ was a relatively contemporary concept, which developed due to the oncoming of capitalist principles. Thus, the greater emphasis on the ‘individual’ aspect of the author can be credited to western influence. The metaphorical ‘death of the author’ occurs when the author starts to write the text, as that is the moment where he loses all control on how he intended his text to be read. It is now up to the reader to interpret it in their own way. Thus, with the removal of the author, the text is exempted from the context or the intention of the author and is granted independence. Due to this, there are not one, but many interpretations to the same text- We know now that a text is not a line of words releasing a single 'theological' meaning (the 'message' of the Author-God) but a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original, blend and clash. ( page 146) Barthes also uses an example of an abstract from Balzac’s story ‘Sarrasine’, in which there is a male protagonist who has mistaken a castrato as a woman. The character then commented on the apparent inherent qualities of a woman. Through this Barthes challenges us, being the reader, to determine whose voice is being portrayed here and in what context. It could be interpreted as being the voice of the character in the plot, or the voice of Balzac himself. Thus, the true meaning of the text does not reside in the author but resides in the reader and the language itself. Throughout the essay, he uses examples and works of other authors to support his argument of how a separation must be made between language and the author. He takes the work of Stephane Mallarme and states that he also saw the importance of detaching language from the author as he feels that the author, in many ways, restricts language from achieving its full potential- To give a text an Author is to impose a limit on that text, to furnish it with a final signified, to close the writing. ( page 147) Proust, on the other hand, uses the unorthodox method of “radical reversal”. Through this method, Proust manages to use his writings and his works to build a foundation for his future self, which is contrary to the commonality of previous authors who use their own lives as a foundation for their works. He also used surrealism as a method for the removal of the author. The engagement of surrealism with “automatic writing” or writing as quickly as possible, void of any meaning, which could be perceived as several people writing together, helped with the de-escalation of the predominant image of the author. Linguistics also played a part in the eradication of the prevalent author by explaining that the role of a dialogist is irrelevant in the entire practice of enunciation and that the entire process would still remain perfectly operational without the presence of an author Roland Barthes also attempts to form an alternative to the author by explaining the importance of modern scriptor. The influence of the author, in relation to his text/book, would be considered substantial. That is because when an author is trusted, he is not only seen as belonging to the history of the book, but he is also seen as the origin for the “nourishment” for the book. In contrast, a modern scriptor would exist not before or after the book, but would only be present during the writing of the text. As the modern scriptor would not exist prior to the writing of the text, he will not have any experiences and thus will be able to write a new work which would have the potential to be eternal and timeless. In conclusion, the focal point of this essay was to paraphrase the essay-‘The death of the author’ by Roland Barthes. His claim was that the intention or the context of the author should not be taken into consideration while attempting to decipher or interpret a text. He then perceives the metaphoric death of the author as emancipatory, as due to this the reader will be able to interpret the text in his own way and would not have to comply with the apparent intentions of the author. He also backed up his arguments by giving instances from the works of Mallarme and Proust. He also gave examples of how the surreal movement and linguistics also helped in the removal of the author. In the end, he offered an alternative to the author by stating how a modern scripture would be a much more appropriate mediator than an author. REFERENCES- Barthes, Roland. 1977. Image Music Texts. Fontana Press: London

Give an account of the theories that explain the transition to capitalism. To what extent was capitalistic development a global phenomenon?

The theory of capitalism emerged during Europe during the 16th-18th centuries. This concept of capitalism can be used as a framework to work with in order to understand the economic changes that occurred in countries such as England and France and eventually the rest of Europe during that period. The oncoming of capitalism can be identified as a shift from feudalism, which can be considered as the predominant economic structure existing during Europe at the time. Although the process of transition has been of great interest to historians alike, there is no one particular theory that can explain the course of the development of capitalism. For the sake of brevity, three theories will be explained that showcase the transition to capitalism. The theories in question were put forward by Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and Max Webber respectively. There are also many theorists who have branched out, using those three theories as a foundation. Some of those theories will also be mentioned in this essay. This essay will also delve into the impact that capitalism has had on the world. As this transition had occurred while other major developments were taking place in Europe at the time, events such as the Industrial Revolution have also been taken into consideration when analyzing the impact of capitalism on the global world. Adam Smith attempts to explain the transition from feudalism to capitalism by focusing on the individualistic tendency for self-improvement and the self-betterment of their conditions in the society they live in. According to Smith, this tendency can be expressed by the willingness “to truck, barter, and exchange” ( Holton 1985, p. 35) The phrase ‘ trucking propensity’ can also be used to describe this tendency. He claims that the emergence and the development of the ‘commercial society’ can be credited to an increase in the division of labor and an increase in capital. This increase in resources would be a result of the frugal nature and of individuals. According to R.J Holton, “Smith argued that the development of the division of labor and 'commercial society' should be regarded as unintended consequences of such behavior.” ( Holton 1985, p. 35) thus we can say that Smith regarded the transition to capitalism as an incidental event Smith also emphasized the importance of ‘moral sentiments’, such as justice and ethics, as according to him, without these principles, the society would enter into economic dystopia or chaos. Thus, Smith’s theory does not only focus on the economic factors such as capital and division of labor but also attempts to accentuate the relevance of social factors in the development of the ‘commercial society’.        The Marxist perspective on the transition to capitalism lays its foundation in the capitalist mode of production. This theory bases its focal point on the importance of wage-labor in a society. The relationship between a wage-laborer and a capitalist can be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, the society in the process of transition must have a legal framework which allows a worker to sell his labor in exchange for either money or some other good or commodity. Secondly, the capitalist individual who is purchasing the manual labor from the worker must be able to make a profit on the goods produced, in comparison to the money spent in acquiring the manual labor in the first place. Thus, “The extraction of this 'surplus value' from wage-laborers under conditions of competition between capitalists, is what constitutes the fundamental dynamic of the capitalist system” ( Holton 1985, p. 65). In Marxist theories, the transition can be identified as starting from the 16th century.. A factor that needs to be considered is that during that time period, the notion of mercantilism was emerging, which would result in the expansion of trade and would also result in the growth of towns. Yet, Marx was critical of the inclusion of mercantilism in the transition to capitalism. One reason behind this critique could be because the entire concept of mercantilism lay outside the process of production and thus was not included in wage-labor, which is central to the Marxist theories. Also, through trade and commerce would only involve the labor making commodities, “Yet for capitalism to emerge he saw it as necessary not simply for products to assume a commodity-form, but also for labor itself to take on the nature of the commodity, i.e. to become saleable as labor-power” ( Holton 1985, p. 71). While examining Adam Smith’s theory with that of Karl Marx, a few differences can be identified. Unlike Smith, who centralized the importance of individuals working together in a society, Marx prioritizes that the individuals act as “free 'producers' unfettered by natural or social limits.” ( Holton 1985, p. 70). Smith also emphasizes on the importance of exchange of commodities, while on the other hand, Marx is extremely critical of the same. Many historians have also branched out on Marx's theory on the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Some of these are- (a) the 'exchange relations' perspective-reflected in the work of Sweezy and Wallerstein; (b) the 'property relations' perspective - associated with Dobb, Hilton, and Brenner;  (c) 'Marxist eclecticism'- associated with Perry Anderson. ( Holton 1985, p. 74) Max Webber focuses his theory on the ‘modern capitalist spirit’ rather than capitalism itself.  It is important to note that the ‘spirit’ that Webber focuses on, should not be interpreted in a metaphysical context, as it is instead used to describe a certain set of values. This is evident as “this 'spirit' is defined as a type of social action involving the rational calculative pursuit of profit-maximization. This mentality is associated with values such as thrift, diligence, and asceticism in 'worldly' economic affairs.” ( Holton 1985, p.104) Thus, according to Webber,  this major paradigm shifts away from the orthodox catholic church which would result in individuals engaging in trade and business in a more secular society. This could have resulted in the unintentional historical development of capitalism Another important aspect of Webber's theory was that he rejects the notion of a ‘prime mover’, which we could interpret to mean that according to him, there was no one particular course of transition and that it could have taken many routes instead of just one. Therefore, this theory is not limited to just one factor, such as technology, politics, etc, but can be a blend of two or more factors. Due to this reason, Webber's theory detaches itself from the rest of the theories mentioned in this essay as all the other theories offer only one route that explains the transition from feudalism to capitalism. As previously mentioned at the start of the essay, the notion of capitalism emerged during Europe around 16th-18th centuries. Although it was mainly confined to only a few countries, such as England and France, it quickly became the dominant economic model that it is today. The political, social and economic events that unfolded during that time period have played a very important role in the expanding of capitalism from a few countries in Europe to a global phenomenon. We will now analyze two of the events in an attempt to understand them in relation to the exposure of capitalism. The industrial revolution, which took place in England during the 19th century, can certainly be considered as one of the most important revolutions that ever took place. One of the main elements that emerged out of this revolution was the rise and the development of a capitalist society. This is evident as “It is only in the 1830s that literature and the arts began to be overtly haunted by that rise of the capitalist society, that world in which all social bonds crumbled except the implacable gold and paper ones of the cash nexus (the phrase comes from Carlyle).”    ( Hobsbawm 1996, p. 27) although the revolution in itself was limited to England in a geographical sense, its ideas and notions spread across the world. Also a colonial power, its relations with its conquered states in Africa and Asia also helped in the exposure of capitalism. An example can be India itself, as they follow a mixed economic model, which is a fusion of both a capitalist economy and a social economy. The economic policy of mercantilism, which emerged during the 16th century during Europe, may also have played a key role in capital development across the world. Driven by profit- maximization, barter exchange, and colonial expansion, the balance of trade grew as the modernized European nations established contact with other nations, and thus spread their superior ideas and notions such as capitalism. In conclusion, the transition from feudalism to capitalism can be considered ambiguous progress which has invited many historians to present their views. This essay examined the views of Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and Max Webber in order to get a better understanding of the transition itself and also to delve into some of the canonical texts of this particular discourse. The position of capitalism as an economic model in a global context was also explored.   REFERENCES- Holton, R.J. 1985. The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism. Macmillan Education : New York Hobsbawm, Eric. 1996. The Age of Revolution. Vintage Books: London

Indian Philosophy

In ancient times only two cultures were very fertile in Philosophy – the Greek and Indian. While Greek Philosophers, like, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were laying the foundations for Western philosophy in Greece. India’s geniuses produced treatises in linguistics, mathematics, logic, astronomy, philosophy, and medicine. Unlike western philosophy, where each Philosopher’s views, responses and comments were recorded by their disciples, and are chronologically available, the ancient Indian philosophy is represented in a mass of texts for which the authors and dates of composition are mostly unknown. Chief among these texts are the Vedas, written from perhaps 1500-1000 B.C., the oldest religious texts in the world. They mainly consist of hymns in praise of nature gods and instructions for rituals. The last of the works among the Vedas, called the Upanishads, were written after 700 B.C. and are on occasion more philosophical. Also, “( The main philosophical themes       that the            Upaniṣads explore are the nature of the Absolute (Brahman) as the ground of being and the importance of knowledge of Brahman as the key to liberation”( p.12, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Roy W Perret)These Indian scriptures laid the foundation for most of India’s philosophical schools. Ancient Indian Philosophy is classified into six Darshanas, or views, or systems. They are Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Vedanta. Indians also distinguish two classes of Indian philosophies: astika and nastika. The astika systems respect the Vedas to some degree. The nastika systems reject Vedic thought. They are: Jainism, Buddhism, and Lokayata or Carvakas. In the West, philosophical schools tended to rise and fall, one after the other. But in India all these systems have competed for adherence beside each other for centuries. Astika (Vedic/ Orthodox) Systems Except for differences in fundamental thinking and rituals, all these systems agreed about karma(action), the good and evil actions of karma, reincarnation, the transient nature of human life andthe doctrine of samsara - that today’s humans have passed from birth to birth from eternity. The goal of these systems was moksha (or mukti): liberation from the endless cycle of birth and rebirth, and therefore liberation from all suffering. All Darshanas agreed on the existence of a permanent soul (atman). In most systems, it is a kind of purification of the soul that lead to moksha, though what this means varies from system to system.The ancient Indians did not see philosophy as a disinterested investigation of the nature of reality. Rather, philosophy was a practical matter, useful for daily life and in shaping one’s destiny. Nastika (Heterodox) Systems Atheists and materialists were apparently common in ancient India, for the Hindu scriptures found it necessary to respond to the arguments of non-believers on many occasions. The nastika systems of Lokayata held that perception is the only valid source of knowledge, and all other sources, like testimony and inference are unreliable. Perception revealed only the material world, all rituals were useless, and scriptures contained no special insight. Thus, the only purpose of life was to enjoy pleasure and avoid pain. Jainism, however, accepted perception, inference (assuming that correct reasoning is being followed), and testimony, when it came from a reliable authority. The Jain doctrine holds that there are souls in everything. Unfortunately, the desires of souls attract tiny bits of matter that weigh them down. Only by removing its desires can a soul free itself from the bondage of matter and achieve happiness. There are three things can free a soul from its desires - faith in the teachings of Jain saints, right understanding of these teachings, and right conduct. Buddhism philosophy propagates that the best way to know something is through personal experience. Suffering lies at the core of this philosophy. If it is understood that worldly desires cause suffering, then one should abstain from these desires and through its liberation, attain nirvana - a perfect peace of mind free from desire, the end of identity due to a realized oneness with the world, perfect bliss and highest spiritual attainment. Conclusion In ancient India, there was a continuing tension between the “activism (pravṛtti), exemplified in the early Vedic ritualistic tradition, and quietism (nivṛtti), exemplified in the later Upaniṣadic renunciant tradition.”( p.13, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Roy W Perret While the earlier Vedic literature emphasized the ideal householder committed to “Dharma”, the later idiolised the renunciant in pursuit of “Moksha”. At the same time, rival anti-Vedic philosophies like Jainism and Buddhism emphasised the path of ascetism.                                            

Nyaya philosophy

In this essay, we will take the concept of liberation under Nyaya Philosophy and compare it with the understanding of liberation under some different schools.  Nyaya philosophy is one of the schools that come under the Indian schools of Philosophy. It is mainly concerned with the conditions of correct thinking and also the means or the ways of acquiring a true knowledge of reality. Like many of the other schools, it has its own theory of attaining moksa or liberation for the individual self. In the case of Nyaya philosophy, “To attain liberation one must acquire a true knowledge of the self and all objects of experience.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 239). For the Naiyayikas, liberation is only possible when they are in a complete state of negation, of all pain and suffering. As our body has a physical presence and has sense organs, it is exposed to objects that are unpleasant and undesirable. Thus liberation can only be attained when the soul is separated from the body which can only happen after death. God also plays a very important part in attaining liberation as “According to the Naiyayikas, the individual self can attain true knowledge of realities and, through it, the state of liberation only by the grace of God.” (Chatterjee and Datta, p. 240). Jaina philosophy also has its own theory of liberation, which can only happen with the “complete dissociation of the soul from the matter.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 118). This can only be done by stopping the influx of matter into the soul as well as removing all the matter that has mingled with the soul.  Like Nyaya philosophy, Jainas also stress on the necessity of right knowledge as it can remove ignorance, which is deemed to be the cause of all the unwanted passions that lead to the influx of matter such as greed, infatuation etc.  Unlike the Naiyayikas, who can only attain liberation after death, the Jainas believe that liberation can be attained in this lifetime by studying the teachings of individuals who have already attained liberation. The individual must also have faith in these teachings and must also have the right conduct in order to stop the influx of new karma and the eradication of bad karma. Thus, “The path to liberation lies through right faith, knowledge, and conduct. Liberation is the joint effect of these three.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p.120). Another difference between Nyaya philosophy and Jaina philosophy is that for the Naiyayikas, God plays a key role in the process for liberation while on the other hand, the Jainas don’t believe in God at all. Sankhya philosophy is similar to Nyaya philosophy in many ways as “Like the Nyaya-Vaisesika system, the Sankhya aims at knowledge of reality for the practical purpose of putting an end to all pain and suffering” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 292). Even the theory of liberation under Sankhya philosophy is similar to that of Nyaya philosophy as “In the Sankhya system, liberation ( Mukti), is just the absolute and complete cessation of all pain without a possibility of return.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 323). The only way to get rid of pain forever is only possible through the knowledge of reality. Same as in the Nyaya philosophy, even in Sankhya philosophy liberation can only be attained only after the emancipation of the soul from the body. Although the role of God for liberation is given in Nyaya philosophy, the existence of God in Sankhya Philosophy is open to interpretations. Instead of God, the Sankhya recognizes two ultimate realities which are spirit (purusha) and matter (prakrti). The last school in this essay are the Carvakas. They are materialistic beings and they do not believe in a soul. Thus the Nyaya theory of liberation does not apply to them as they don’t believe in a soul and thus don’t believe in life after death. They also refuse the idea of having liberation in this life as they think they both pleasure and pain are bound by the body and that you can only minimize the pain. Their concept of liberation is to “attain the maximum amount of pleasure in this life, avoiding pain as far as possible.” (Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 75).  They also do not believe in the existence of God. Thus we can see that each school has their own version of what liberation is. Even though there are variations between them, most of them call for the end of suffering, either in this life or after death. BIBLIOGRAPHY:- Chatterjee, Satishchandra and Dheerendramohan Datta. 1948. An Introduction To Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: University of Calcutta