Process of writing
The process of writing1. PlanningInvolves gathering ideas and focusing on the topic: Topic selection, gathering ideas, extensive reading and interpretation. When planning one must ask himself/herself the following questions:· What is the purpose of my writing?· Who is my audience?· What are the special requirements of my writing task?2. ShapingConsidering how best to organize your ideas on pen and paper. Shaping involves:· Determining the tone· Drafting a thesis statement· Outlining ideas3. Drafting4. Revising5. Editing6. Proof reading
Mousumi Manna
Argumentative writing
Argumentative writing is an academic writing which is also called persuasive writing. It is a rational effort to defend or refute a claim and does not have place for emotions, or anger. Most academic writing falls under this category.Argumentative writing is done argumentatively. The writer collects all his/her points and presents them logically and constructively. The aim of an argumentative writing is to persuade the audience and convince them to accept the writers point of view. Argumentative essays are expected to be clear and coherent. The writer must be clear about his/her argument.CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY1. Clarity2. Complete3. Accurate4. Based on sound premises5. Logical Avoid arguing in circles6. Reasonable7. Be based on evidence8. Must acknowledge opposition9. Avoid fallacies i.e. unqualified generalizations
Writing skills
Writing SkillsWe learn to read by reading, and We learn to write by writing.ButWe also learn to read by writing, and We learn to write by reading.What is writing?Writing is:· A process of putting thought ,ideas and concepts into words using continuous prose;· A thinking process;· a form of output/production because it is a demonstration of what we know, implicitly or explicitly· Opportunity for negotiation of meaning through peer interaction – at every stage of the writing process· a means of building fluency;· a way of developing accuracy (in grammar, vocabulary, etc.);· thinking made evident external memory;· a critical skill for academic or professional success· is a way to demonstrate proficiency· helps us discover what we do or do not know· is more than a paragraph or essayWhat are writing Skills· Ability to put sounds down on graphic form according to the conventional sound-spelling rules.· Ability to spell English words correctly, including using correct punctuation and capitalization.· Ability to do writing practice, such as dictation, grammar exercises, constructing dialogues according to the model, simple translation exercises.· Ability to write short compositions, including functional writing skills, such as writing simple letters, taking notes, writing outlines and summaries.What a good writing entails
Technique of Presentation Delivery
Techniques of DeliveryHargie et al (2004, p. 72) outline a number of features of effective deliveries, summarised as follows:• Use appropriate language and avoid jargon. If the audience do not understand most of what is being talked about, they will become detached.• Be suitably paced. Inexperienced speakers have a habit of speaking too quickly. On the other hand, speaking too slowly is a recipe for boredom. Where speed of delivery may be a particular concern, think about placing an accomplice in the audience primed to signal when you get too slow or too quick.• Use visual aids without placing them centre stage. Even the best of these are only aids to assist the speaker.• Make use of sub-summaries, signposts and links. Pause at transitional points in the flow of ideas to briefly summarize the material covered. Explaininghow this ‘chunk’ of information links with what comes next helps to signpost the path through the presentation and increases its coherence.• Emphasize key points verbally, non-verbally and vocally. Emphasize verbally through listing key points (e.g. ‘It is vital that you recognise…’), repeating core elements etc; non-verbally (e.g. Gestures, changes in posture, position); and vocally (e.g. Altering volume, speed of delivery, tone of voice).• Be verbally fluent. Effective public speakers do not have to be word perfect. Nevertheless, lots of ‘umms’ ‘ahhhhs’ and other fillers such as ‘you know’ can be highly distracting.• Be concrete and precise, rather than appearing vague and indefinite.• Be varied, e.g. intersperse talk with graphs, slides or pieces of video that the audience can look at as a break from listening. If appropriate, encourage some discussion or ask the audience to work on a brief exercise.• Include carefully chosen examples – as a bridge between what the listener knows and is familiar with and the new material being introduced.• Avoid distractions, e.g. pacing around, playing with a pen or pointer, over use of certain stock phrases. Gain control of body language.• Seem natural and not contrived. This can take some time and practice.• Rehearse what is going to be said.
Listening effectively tips
LISTENING EFFECTIVELY TIPSListening effectively is hearing and understanding what a speaker is saying and how it applies to you, and then remembering it for future use and evaluation. There are ways to improve your listening skills for lectures. The following is a list of some basic techniques:1. Recognize how ideas are organized. Lectures usually begin with some type of introduction, followed by a thesis statement which is supported by additional information. Most professors bring closure to their lecture by summarizing what they have covered. Learn to identify the lecture style that is used by your professor.2. Become involved in what is being said. Be an avid listener. Constantly analyze what is being said.3. Cut through (or screen out) distractions.• background noise• unusual accents, dialects, and language mistakes• speaker disorganization, emotion, or habits• unrelated material• your own inner voice4. Organize statements into main points and supporting reasons. Using an outline form may be helpful.5. Discriminate between relevancies and irrelevancies. Remember that not all information is important.6. Maintain an active body state. Keeping alert and having eye-contact with the speaker will help you listen more effectively.In order to improve your listening skills, you will need to practice using the suggested techniques until they become automatic
Barriers in listening
Barriers to ListeningThe following list identifies just some possible barriers to effective listening;1. sources of noise2. Forming a judgment or evaluation before we understand what is being said, or ‘jumping to conclusions’.3. Hearing what we want to hear.4. Tuning out a point of view that differs from our own.5. Formulating and rehearsing our response.6. Being inattentive - thinking about something else entirely.7. Having a closed mind- you do not want to hear what the person has to say.8. Feeling anxious or self-conscious.9. Judging the person, either positively or negatively.10. Subjective biases based on ignorance or prejudice.11. Cultural issues, e.g. listening to the differences in pronunciation of different accent, rather than the content of the message.12. Excessive and incessant talking or interrupting.It is important that such barriers to listening are recognized and dealt with. With developing awareness, we can have more control over those barriers that are internal to ourselves, and can adopt and use more helpful listening behaviors.
Listening : Second most important thing of communication
Listeners must first hear what is said. Listening skills involve identifying and selecting relevant points recognised as having meaning; that are understood and held in short-term memory. These can be related to what has gone before and to what comes after. Any information considered important is selected and stored for future reference in the long term memory.Decoding (understanding) a message is generally easier for the listener if a person is speaking rather than reading something out loud. In addition the speaker's facial expressions, and the stress placed on words help the listener to understand the message.Developing effective listening skills involves two specific steps (Hartley & Bruckman, 2002). These are:1. To develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents you listening with full attention.2. To develop and use behaviors which help you to listen. Such behaviors can also serve to let the other person know that you are giving them your full attention.Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain. Listening leads to the understanding of facts and ideas. To listen is to pay attention, or sticking to the task at hand in spite of distractions. It requires concentration, which is the focusing of your thoughts upon one particular problem.A person who incorporates listening with concentration is actively listening. Active listening is a method of responding to another that encourages communication.Active listening is composed of six distinct componentsn Hearing: The physiological process of receiving sound and/or other stimuli.n Attending: The conscious and unconscious process of focusing attention on external stimuli.n Interpreting: The process of decoding the symbols or behavior attended to.n Evaluating: The process of deciding the value of the information to the receiver.n Remembering: The process of placing the appropriate information into short-term or long-term storage.n Responding: The process of giving feedback to the source and/or other receivers.
7 C's of Effective Communication
The 7 Cs of CommunicationThe 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports, and presentations are well constructed and clear so your audience gets your message. According to the 7Cs, communication needs to be:· Clear.· Concise.· Concrete.· Correct.· Coherent.· Complete.· Courteous.1. ClearWhen writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your purpose in communicating with this person? If you’re not sure, then youraudience won’t be sure either. To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it’s easy for your reader to understand yourmeaning. People shouldn’t have to “read between the lines” and make assumptions on their own to understand what you’re trying to say.2 .ConciseWhen you are concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief. Your audience doesn’t want to read six sentences when you could communicate your message in three.3.ConcreteWhen your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you’re telling them. There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts. Your message is solid.Look at these two examples: For Example:a) The Lunchbox Wizard will save you time every day.b) How much time do you spend every day packing your kids’ lunches? No more! Just take a complete Lunchbox Wizard from your refrigerator each day to give your kids a healthy lunch AND have more time to play or read with them!4. CorrectWhen your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct communication is also error free communication.5. CoherentWhen your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points are connected and relevant to the main topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.6. CompleteIn a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if applicable, take action. Does your message include a “call to action”, so that your audience clearly knows what you want them to do? Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times, locations, and so on?7. Courteous/considerationCourteous communication is friendly, open, and honest and does not illicit emotions. There are no hidden insults or passive aggressive tones. You keep your reader’s viewpoint in mind, and you’re empathetic to their needs. You must always put yourself in the shoes of the person you are talking to and ask yourself how you would feel if you were to be addressed the way you are addressing your receiver.Consideration in communication creates a healthy work environment.
Body language during presentation
Body Language during presentationRemember the importance of non-verbal communication!• Behave enthusiastically,• make and maintain eye contact,• smile,• act ‘as if’ you are confident and relaxed (even if you do not feel it) and make your introduction without reading from your notes too much.• The manner of speech is also important.• As well as ensuring that your voice can be heard by the furthest member of the group,• speak clearly and at a conversational,• appropriate speed.• Varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can communicate enthusiasm and can create a sense of interest in the listener.• Pause before key points and stress key parts of the sentence by using change in tone.Techniques to resolve your anxiety include the following:1. Accept that it is perfectly normal to feel nervous or anxious to some extent.2. • Prepare well.3. • Be realistic. Are your standards too high? Take off the unnecessary pressure that comes from negative and unrealistic thoughts by challenging them and seeking the more rational view. That worst case scenario you imagine is highly improbable, and if a less than positive outcome does occur, it is unlikely to be the end of the world!4. • Use relaxation exercises such as deep breathing.5. • Behave ‘as if’ you are feeling confident; i.e.i. Enter the presentation in a very deliberate way,ii. Rehearse your presentation, but also how you will Stand, set out your notes, change your slides etc,iii. Use other non-verbal behaviors to appear confident.
Delivery of Presentation
DeliveryDeVito (1990) outlines four main types of delivery:1. Impromptu: This involves giving a talk with no prior planning, and is often the least preferred method. Sometimes however, we do not have an opportunity to prepare and are called on to speak at short notice. Take a few moments to write some key points down on a card to help give you some structure, and do not panic. Others will be aware that you had only a short time to prepare. Also keeping the style relaxed and conversational, so that it seems impromptu (even if this is not the case)can be a very effective style.2. Extemporaneous: Extemporaneous speech is a “carefully prepared, but delivered without notes or text.” It is speaking before a group on a topic you are familiar with, using very few notes. Extemporaneous speeches are presentations that must be given without any notes or slides and with minimum preparation time, usually less than 30 minutes. This involves cue cards or slides on which you summarize the main points which you then flesh out.3. Memorized: This approach involves learning and repeating a manuscript. This is more difficult when giving longer presentations in that there is a lot of material to be memorized. However, a useful tip is to memorize the first few lines to get you started.4. Reading from a manuscript: This involves speaking from a prepared manuscript. However, while this can feel the safest option, try to use it as a guide as far aspossible rather than reading it word for word, as your delivery could otherwise sound stilted. Practice and rehearse in order to remember key points. Ultimately, choose the method, or combination of methods, that is least stressful for you.
Forms of communication : Verbal, Paraverbal and Non-Verbal
Forms of Communicating Verbal CommunicationAll forms of communication can be categorized as either verbal or nonverbal. Both verbal and nonverbal communication can be subdivided into either vocal or non- vocal. Verbal communication involves using speech to exchange information with others. We usually communicate verbally in face-to-face conversations such as; meetings, interviews, conferences, speeches, phone calls e.t.c. Much of the communication that takes place between people is both verbal and non-verbal; that is, it is based on language and gestures.Verbal communication of the vocal category includes spoken language, while non- vocal verbal communication involves written communication as well as communicationthat is transmitted through transmitted through sign language, finger spelling, Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language.Paraverbal/paralinguistic/ paralanguage featuresParalinguistic or paralanguage features are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words. They add emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say. Paralinguistic features accompany verbal communication and are the vocal signals beyond the basic verbal message. Paralinguistic elements in a person's speech, convey meaning beyond the words and grammar used. Examples of paralinguistic features include pitch, rate, quality of voice and amplitude. Other forms of paralanguage can also include laughter or imitative speech. Prosody, which is the rhythm, pattern, stress, rate, volume, inflection and intonation of a person's speech, is also a form of paralanguage.People express meaning not just in what they say but in the way they say it. The paralinguistic features employed by a speaker provide hint to the meaning, communicate the speakers’ attitudes and convey their emotion. Paralinguistic features also alert the listener as to how to interpret the message. Many of these paralinguistic features are culturally coded and inherent in verbal communication, often at a subconscious level.Non-VerbalNon-verbal communication is a type of communication that employs gestures and body language. The term "body language" is sometimes used to denote non-verbal communications. "Body Language" is the communication of personal feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body-movements such as gestures, postures, facial expressions, touch, smell, walking styles and positions among others. These movements can be done either consciously or involuntarily; more often they ‘happen’ subconsciously, and are accompanied, or not accompanied, by words.There are basically three elements in any face-to-face communication. These three elements account differently for the meaning of the message:· Words account for 7%· Tone of voice accounts for 38% and· Body language accounts for 55% of the message.Our body language and tone of voice should be consistent with the words we use. This is only possible when we say what we mean to say and say it rightly. Otherwise we can confuse people and reduce the prospect of getting our message across to be understood. Non-verbal communication can lead to misunderstandings, communication failure and even conflicts if the interlocutors are careless.Non-verbal communication includes:(P)OSTURES & GESTURES (E)YE CONTACT (O)RIENTATION (P)RESENTATION (L)OOKS(E)PRESSIONS OF EMOTIONBody language and kinesics are based on the behavioral patterns of non-verbal communication. Body language can actually contradict verbal communications and reveal our inner feelings about any particular person or topic either intentionally or unintentionally.The way in which you fold your arms, cross your legs, sit, stand, walk, move your head, eyes, lips reveal what you may be thinking or feeling. For example, you may be sitting and conversing with a person; suddenly, he leans forward and with both arms clutches the chair. By doing so he non-verbally communicates to you his desire to end the meeting. Body language has shed new light on the dynamics of relationships.Hands GesturesHands and arms are used by most of us to communicate our thoughts. People rub arms together, keep their arms closed, and clinch the fists. All these tell what the person has in his mind involuntary. It is a way that people non-verbally communicate positive expectations. Hands clenched together seems to be a confident gesture as some people who use it are often smiling and sound happy. However, if the hands are clenched too tightly, it is indicative of frustration or hostile attitude.Eye Gestures/facial expressionFacial expression, offers the most readily observable group of gestures. We focus our eyes on the face more often than on any other part of the body, and the expressions we see there have widely accepted meanings.If a prospect's eyes are downcast and face turned away, you're being shut out, however, if the mouth move, he is probably considering your presentation. If his eyes engage yours for several seconds at a time with a slight, one-sided smile extending at least to nose level, he is weighing your proposal. It is only when you see 'eye to eye' with another person that a real basis for communication can be established. Other forms of nonverbal communication include: Touch, smell, distance.The number of people in a communication situation affects the use of non-verbal communication. The more the persons involved, the more complex the use and understanding of the non-verbal communication becomes. However, to decipher the non-verbal communication it is important to see, interpret and understand them holistically and in a context, while identifying the different types of personalities involved.
Effective Communication
Effective CommunicationAlthough we can all communicate, not all our communication acts are effective. We must all strive to be effective communicators.So, what is effective communication?This is that communication which produces results. It is communication where the intended message is delivered clearly, and the desired feedback is achieved. It is communication that does not give room for misunderstanding. It is the best form of communication.Communication can be effective or it can be misunderstood leading to ineffectiveness. Meaning communication must be effective. Ineffective communication is expensive to the participants because it blocks results. In other words communication is a matter of effectiveness. Effectiveness is a measure of outcome. Effective communication therefore results in the form of desired outcome.Effective Communication is communication that conveys information to another person efficiently and effectively and so achieves desired outcome.It is important to note that not all communication are effective. This course aims to help the learners to become effective communicators both at the university and later in their professional fields.Communication is a process that can be marked with error such as with messages muddled (i.e., mixed up by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient).Miscommunication is avoidable. However, if this is not detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, waste efforts and miss opportunities. In fact, communication is successful only when both the sender and the receiver reach a common understanding regarding the same information as a result of the communication process.Effective communication is about receiving information from others with as little distortion as possible. Communication is a matter of effectiveness, which is dependent on the interlocutors’ (speakers’) communication competency. In other words its effectiveness is dependent on one’s competency in communication. We can therefore say that communication involves intents and efforts from both the sender of the message and the receiver.Effective Communication SkillsEffective Communication skills must include: communicating using· Eye contact & visible mouth· Body language· Checking for understanding· Smiling face· Summarizing what has been said· Encouragement to continue· Asking some questions· silence