ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Introduction: Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole. The Clean Air Act authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to protect public health by regulating the emissions of these harmful air pollutants. The NRDC has been a leading authority on this law since it was established in 197.Air pollution is a change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristic of air that causes adverse effects on humans and other organisms. The ultimate result is a change in the natural environment and ecosystem. The substances that are responsible for causing air pollution are called air pollutants. These air pollutants can be either natural (e.g. wildfires) or synthetic (man-made); they may be in the form of gas, liquid or solid
Shantha Kumar . V
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Order and molecularity,Chemical kinetics is the branch of physical chemistry which deals with a study of the speed of chemical reactions. Such studies also enable us to understand the mechanism by which the reaction occurs. Thus, in chemical kinetics we can also determine the rate of chemical reaction. From the kinetic stand point the reactions are classified into two groups: a)homogeneousreactionswhichoccurentirelyinonephaseb)heterogeneousreactions where the transformation takes place on the surface of a catalyst or the walls of a container. 1.2 Rateofreaction The rate of reaction i.e. the velocity of a reaction is the amount of a chemical change occurring per unit time. The rate is generally expressed as the decrease in concentration of a reactant or as the increase in concentration of the product. IfCthe concentration of a reactant at any time t is, the rate is−dC dt or if the concentration of a product be xat any time t, the rate would bedx dt. The time is usually expressed in seconds. The rate will have units of concentration divided by time. The concentrations are taken in gm-moles/litre, hence rate is moles/litre/second.
ENGLISH THEORY MATERIAL
ENGLISH THEORY PAPER TO PREPARE FOR A EXAM
COMMUNICATION (ENGLISH)
Being able to communicate effectively is perhaps the most important of all life skills. It is what enables us to pass information to other people, and to understand what is said to us. You only have to watch a baby listening intently to its mother and trying to repeat the sounds that she makes to understand how fundamental is the urge to communicate. Communication, at its simplest, is the act of transferring information from one place to another. It may be vocally (using voice), written (using printed or digital media such as books, magazines, websites or emails), visually (using logos, maps, charts or graphs) or non-verbally (using body language, gestures and the tone and pitch of voice). In practice, it is often a combination of several of these. Communication skills may take a lifetime to master—if indeed anyone can ever claim to have mastered them. There are, however, many things that you can do fairly easily to improve your communication skills and ensure that you are able to transmit and receive information effectively. This page provides an introduction to communication skills. It is also a guide to the pages on SkillsYouNeed that cover this essential area to enable you to navigate them effectively. The Importance of Good Communication Skills Developing your communication skills can help all aspects of your life, from your professional life to social gatherings and everything in between. The ability to communicate information accurately, clearly and as intended, is a vital life skill and something that should not be overlooked. It’s never too late to work on your communication skills and by doing so, you may well find that you improve your quality of life.
CONCEPT OF FRIEND CLASS
A friend function of a class is defined outside that class' scope but it has the right to access all private and protected members of the class. Even though the prototypes for friend functions appear in the class definition, friends are not member functions. A friend can be a function, function template, or member function, or a class or class template, in which case the entire class and all of its members are friends. To declare a function as a friend of a class, precede the function prototype in the class definition with keyword friend as follows − class Box { double width; public: double length; friend void printWidth( Box box ); void setWidth( double wid ); }; To declare all member functions of class ClassTwo as friends of class ClassOne, place a following declaration in the definition of class ClassOne − friend class ClassTwo; Consider the following program − Live Demo #include using namespace std; class Box { double width; public: friend void printWidth( Box box ); void setWidth( double wid ); }; // Member function definition void Box::setWidth( double wid ) { width = wid; } // Note: printWidth() is not a member function of any class. void printWidth( Box box ) { /* Because printWidth() is a friend of Box, it can directly access any member of this class */ cout
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data handling and functionality. According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose. General purpose computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency. Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine. According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers work on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers. They measure continuous physical magnitudes. Digital computers are those that operate with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process data into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate. Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of a digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers use analog components and for storage, digital memories are used. According to functionality, Type of computers are classified as : Analog Computer An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. Digital Computer A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital) A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations. On the basis of Size: Type of Computer Super Computer The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. Mainframe Computer A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. Mini Computer A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously. Micro Computer or Personal Computer • Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk. • Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer. • Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device. Workstations A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHM
An algorithm is a set of steps of operations to solve a problem performing calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks. An algorithm is an efficient method that can be expressed within finite amount of time and space. An algorithm is the best way to represent the solution of a particular problem in a very simple and efficient way. If we have an algorithm for a specific problem, then we can implement it in any programming language, meaning that the algorithm is independent from any programming languages. Algorithm Design The important aspects of algorithm design include creating an efficient algorithm to solve a problem in an efficient way using minimum time and space. To solve a problem, different approaches can be followed. Some of them can be efficient with respect to time consumption, whereas other approaches may be memory efficient. However, one has to keep in mind that both time consumption and memory usage cannot be optimized simultaneously. If we require an algorithm to run in lesser time, we have to invest in more memory and if we require an algorithm to run with lesser memory, we need to have more time. Problem Development Steps The following steps are involved in solving computational problems. Problem definition Development of a model Specification of an Algorithm Designing an Algorithm Checking the correctness of an Algorithm Analysis of an Algorithm Implementation of an Algorithm Program testing Documentation Characteristics of Algorithms The main characteristics of algorithms are as follows − Algorithms must have a unique name Algorithms should have explicitly defined set of inputs and outputs Algorithms are well-ordered with unambiguous operations Algorithms halt in a finite amount of time. Algorithms should not run for infinity, i.e., an algorithm must end at some point Pseudocode Pseudocode gives a high-level description of an algorithm without the ambiguity associated with plain text but also without the need to know the syntax of a particular programming language. The running time can be estimated in a more general manner by using Pseudocode to represent the algorithm as a set of fundamental operations which can then be counted.
WHITE PAPER
A white paper is an authoritative report or guide that informs readers concisely about a complex issue and presents the issuing body's philosophy on the matter. It is meant to help readers understand an issue, solve a problem, or make a decision. The initial British term concerning a type of government-issued document has proliferated, taking a somewhat new meaning in business. In business, a white paper is closer to a form of marketing presentation, a tool meant to persuade customers and partners and promote a product or viewpoint.[1][2][3] White papers may be considered grey literature. Contents 1 In government 2 In business-to-business marketing 3 Variants 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links In government The term white paper originated with the British government, and many point to the Churchill White Paper of 1922 as the earliest well-known example under this name.[4] In British government it is usually the less extensive version of the so-called blue book, both terms being derived from the colour of the document's cover.[2] White papers are a "... tool of participatory democracy ... not [an] unalterable policy commitment."[5] "White papers have tried to perform the dual role of presenting firm government policies while at the same time inviting opinions upon them."[6] In Canada, a white paper is "...a policy document, approved by Cabinet, tabled in the House of Commons and made available to the general public."[7] The "provision of policy information through the use of white and green papers can help to create an awareness of policy issues among parliamentarians and the public and to encourage an exchange of information and analysis. They can also serve as educational techniques."[8] White papers are a way the government can present policy preferences before it introduces legislation. Publishing a white paper tests public opinion on controversial policy issues and helps the government gauge its probable impact.[9] By contrast, green papers, which are issued much more frequently, are more open-ended. Also known as consultation documents, green papers may merely propose a strategy to implement in the details of other legislation, or they may set out proposals on which the government wishes to obtain public views and opinion. Examples of governmental white papers include, in Australia, the White Paper on Full Employment and, in the United Kingdom, the White Paper of 1939 and the 1966 Defence White Paper. In business-to-business marketing Since the early 1990s, the term "white paper", or "whitepaper", has been applied to documents used as marketing or sales tools in business. These white papers are long-form content designed to promote the products or services from a specific company. As a marketing tool, these papers use selected facts and logical arguments to build a case favorable to the company sponsoring the document. B2B (business-to-business) white papers are often used to generate sales leads, establish thought leadership, make a business case, or inform and persuade prospective customers, channel partners, journalists, analysts, or investors. White papers are considered to be a form of content marketing or inbound marketing; in other words, sponsored content available on the web with or without registration, intended to raise the visibility of the sponsor in search engine results and thus build web traffic. Many B2B white papers argue that one particular technology, product or method is superior to others for solving a specific business problem. They may also present research findings, list a set of questions or tips about a certain business issue, or highlight a particular product or service from a vendor.[10] There are, essentially, three main types of commercial white papers: Backgrounder: Describes the technical or business benefits of a certain vendor's offering; either a product, service, or methodology. This type of white paper is best used to supplement a product launch, argue a business case, or support a technical evaluation at the bottom of the sales funnel. Numbered list: Presents a set of tips, questions, or points about a certain business issue. This type is best used to get attention with new or provocative views, or cast aspersions on competitors. Problem/solution: Recommends a new, improved solution to a nagging business problem. This type is best used to generate leads at the top of the sales funnel, build mind share, or inform and persuade stakeholders, building trust and credibility in the subject.[11] While a numbered list may be combined with either other type, it is not workable to combine the detailed product information of a backgrounder with the industry-wide perspective of a problem/solution white paper. Variants Several variations on the colour theme exist: The green paper is a proposal or consultative document rather than being authoritative or final. Two others are much less well established: A blue paper sets out technical specifications of a technology or item of equipment.[12] A yellow paper is a document containing research that has not yet been formally accepted or published in an academic journal. It is synonymous to the more widely used term preprint.
CLIPPING ALGORITHM
The primary use of clipping in computer graphics is to remove objects, lines, or line segments that are outside the viewing pane. The viewing transformation is insensitive to the position of points relative to the viewing volume − especially those points behind the viewer − and it is necessary to remove these points before generating the view. Point Clipping Clipping a point from a given window is very easy. Consider the following figure, where the rectangle indicates the window. Point clipping tells us whether the given point (X, Y) is within the given window or not; and decides whether we will use the minimum and maximum coordinates of the window. The X-coordinate of the given point is inside the window, if X lies in between Wx1 ≤ X ≤ Wx2. Same way, Y coordinate of the given point is inside the window, if Y lies in between Wy1 ≤ Y ≤ Wy2. Point Clipping Line Clipping The concept of line clipping is same as point clipping. In line clipping, we will cut the portion of line which is outside of window and keep only the portion that is inside the window. Cohen-Sutherland Line Clippings This algorithm uses the clipping window as shown in the following figure. The minimum coordinate for the clipping region is (XWmin,YWmin) and the maximum coordinate for the clipping region is (XWmax,YWmax). Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping We will use 4-bits to divide the entire region. These 4 bits represent the Top, Bottom, Right, and Left of the region as shown in the following figure. Here, the TOP and LEFT bit is set to 1 because it is the TOP-LEFT corner. TOP-LEFT Corner There are 3 possibilities for the line − Line can be completely inside the window (This line should be accepted). Line can be completely outside of the window (This line will be completely removed from the region). Line can be partially inside the window (We will find intersection point and draw only that portion of line that is inside region). Algorithm Step 1 − Assign a region code for each endpoints. Step 2 − If both endpoints have a region code 0000 then accept this line. Step 3 − Else, perform the logical ANDoperation for both region codes. Step 3.1 − If the result is not 0000, then reject the line. Step 3.2 − Else you need clipping. Step 3.2.1 − Choose an endpoint of the line that is outside the window. Step 3.2.2 − Find the intersection point at the window boundary (base on region code). Step 3.2.3 − Replace endpoint with the intersection point and update the region code. Step 3.2.4 − Repeat step 2 until we find a clipped line either trivially accepted or trivially rejected. Step 4 − Repeat step 1 for other lines. Cyrus-Beck Line Clipping Algorithm This algorithm is more efficient than Cohen-Sutherland algorithm. It employs parametric line representation and simple dot products. Cyrus-Beck Line Clipping Parametric equation of line is − P0P1:P(t) = P0 + t(P1 - P0) Let Ni be the outward normal edge Ei. Now pick any arbitrary point PEi on edge Ei then the dot product Ni.[P(t) – PEi] determines whether the point P(t) is “inside the clip edge” or “outside” the clip edge or “on” the clip edge. The point P(t) is inside if Ni.[P(t) – PEi] < 0 The point P(t) is outside if Ni.[P(t) – PEi] > 0 The point P(t) is on the edge if Ni.[P(t) – PEi] = 0 (Intersection point) Ni.[P(t) – PEi] = 0 Ni.[ P0 + t(P1 - P0) – PEi] = 0 (Replacing P(t) with P0 + t(P1 - P0)) Ni.[P0 – PEi] + Ni.t[P1 - P0] = 0 Ni.[P0 – PEi] + Ni∙tD = 0 (substituting D for [P1 - P0]) Ni.[P0 – PEi] = - Ni∙tD The equation for t becomes, t=Ni.[Po−PEi]−Ni.D It is valid for the following conditions − Ni ≠ 0 (error cannot happen) D ≠ 0 (P1 ≠ P0) Ni∙D ≠ 0 (P0P1 not parallel to Ei) Polygon Clipping (Sutherland Hodgman Algorithm) A polygon can also be clipped by specifying the clipping window. Sutherland Hodgeman polygon clipping algorithm is used for polygon clipping. In this algorithm, all the vertices of the polygon are clipped against each edge of the clipping window. First the polygon is clipped against the left edge of the polygon window to get new vertices of the polygon. These new vertices are used to clip the polygon against right edge, top edge, bottom edge, of the clipping window as shown in the following figure. Polygon Before Filling While processing an edge of a polygon with clipping window, an intersection point is found if edge is not completely inside clipping window and the a partial edge from the intersection point to the outside edge is clipped. The following figures show left, right, top and bottom edge clippings − Clipping Four Edges Text Clipping Various techniques are used to provide text clipping in a computer graphics. It depends on the methods used to generate characters and the requirements of a particular application. There are three methods for text clipping which are listed below − All or none string clipping All or none character clipping Text clipping The following figure shows all or none string clipping − All or None String Clipping In all or none string clipping method, either we keep the entire string or we reject entire string based on the clipping window. As shown in the above figure, STRING2 is entirely inside the clipping window so we keep it and STRING1 being only partially inside the window, we reject. The following figure shows all or none character clipping − All or None Character Clipping This clipping method is based on characters rather than entire string. In this method if the string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we keep it. If it is partially outside the window, then − You reject only the portion of the string being outside If the character is on the boundary of the clipping window, then we discard that entire character and keep the rest string. The following figure shows text clipping − Text Clipping This clipping method is based on characters rather than the entire string. In this method if the string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we keep it. If it is partially outside the window, then You reject only the portion of string being outside. If the character is on the boundary of the clipping window, then we discard only that portion of character that is outside of the clipping window. Bitmap Graphics A bitmap is a collection of pixels that describes an image. It is a type of computer graphics that the computer uses to store and display pictures. In this type of graphics, images are stored bit by bit and hence it is named Bit-map graphics. For better understanding let us consider the following example where we draw a smiley face using bit-map graphics. Smiley Face Now we will see how this smiley face is stored bit by bit in computer graphics. Bit Storage of Smiley Face By observing the original smiley face closely, we can see that there are two blue lines which are represented as B1, B2 and E1, E2 in the above figure. In the same way, the smiley is represented using the combination bits of A4, B5, C6, D6, E5, and F4 respectively. The main disadvantages of bitmap graphics are − We cannot resize the bitmap image. If you try to resize, the pixels get blurred. Colored bitmaps can be very large.
MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER
Assembly and C Language Arithmetic and Logical Instruction in assembly Jump Instructions in assembly Memory Operations using assembly Procedure calls Register manipulation Looping Conditionals etc. Basic Microprocessor Architecture and Design Digital Logic Design (Combinational and Sequential Circuits) Finite State Machine Implementation Single Cycle Data Path Interrupts and Fault Handling IO Operations Advanced Microprocessor architecture Pipelining Cache implementation Virtual Memory Data Level Parallelism (SIMD instructions) etc.
APPLICATION PROGRAM INTERFACE
In computer programming, an application programming interface (API) is a set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer. An API may be for a web-based system, operating system, database system, computer hardware, or software library. An API specification can take many forms, but often includes specifications for routines, data structures, object classes, variables, or remote calls. POSIX, Windows API and ASPI are examples of different forms of APIs. Documentation for the API usually is provided to facilitate usage and implementation. Contents 1 Purpose 2 History 3 Uses 3.1 Libraries and frameworks 3.2 Operating systems 3.3 Remote APIs 3.4 Web APIs 4 Design 5 Release policies 5.1 Public API implications 6 Documentation 7 Copyright controversy 8 Examples 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading Purpose In building applications, an API simplifies programming by abstracting the underlying implementation and only exposing objects or actions the developer needs. While a graphical interface for an email client might provide a user with a button that performs all the steps for fetching and highlighting new emails, an API for file input/output might give the developer a function that copies a file from one location to another without requiring that the developer understand the file system operations occurring behind the scenes.[1] History The term API seems to appear for the first time in the article of Ira W. Cotton, Data structures and techniques for remote computer graphics, published in 1968. Uses Libraries and frameworks An API usually is related to a software library. The API describes and prescribes the "expected behavior" (a specification) while the library is an "actual implementation" of this set of rules. A single API can have multiple implementations (or none, being abstract) in the form of different libraries that share the same programming interface. The separation of the API from its implementation can allow programs written in one language to use a library written in another. For example, because Scala and Java compile to compatible bytecode, Scala developers can take advantage of any Java API.[2]
GUIDELINE BOOK
A guideline is a statement by which to determine a course of action. A guideline aims to streamline particular processes according to a set routine or sound practice.[1] Guidelines may be issued by and used by any organization (governmental or private) to make the actions of its employees or divisions more predictable, and presumably of higher quality. A guideline is similar to a rule. List of guidelines Examples of guidelines are: Code of practice EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles Federal Sentencing Guidelines Guidelines for Examination in the European Patent Office The Guidelines for Japan-U.S. Defense Cooperation Medical guidelines Human interface guidelines Publicly Available Specification Programming style guidelines UNGEGN Toponymic Guidelines