Knowledge in English
Audience Economics: Media Institutions and the Audience Marketplace
Audience Economics: Media Institutions and the Audience Marketplace
Mousumi Manna
The Humane Monster and the Monstrous Human: An Investigation of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein
The Humane Monster and the Monstrous Human: An Investigation of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein Critical Essay
NEW GROWN WITH PLEASANT PAIN: A READING OF KEATS’S ODES
NEW GROWN WITH PLEASANT PAIN: A READING OF KEATS’S ODES
The significance of editing techniques in the adaptation of play texts into film
The significance of editing techniques in the adaptation of play texts into film
Communication definitions, characteristics and functions
Communication SkillsCommunication is a key element in any human activity. Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this communication skill. Very often, we take the ease with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is. Communication takes place when we are supposedly at the same level of understanding and comprehension as other interlocutors. Common forms of communication include speaking, writing, gestures, touch, using pictures and broadcasting. Communication is therefore not what is said whether verbally or non-verbally, but what is understood.What is communication? Communication is a word derived from the Latin word communis or commūnicāre, which means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. Communication is the act of conveying intended meaning to another person through the use of mutually understood signs and language. Communication is the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another.Communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. The basic steps of communication are: the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message encoding, and transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally interpretation of the message by the recipient.Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. When you call or talk verbally to your friend, then you are said to be communicating with your friend.Characteristics of CommunicationThe characteristics of communication include:· Communication is a process: Communication is a 2 way process which involves; listening to others (Receiving) message Asserting/Expressing (Sending).· Communication is a dynamic: it is ever changing depending on the variables at play.· Communication is a complex a process.· Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning.· Communication involves the sharing of information using a code.· Communication occurs between people and sometimes animals· Communication is irreversible: once one has communicated something it cannot be recalled back.· Communication is a system· Communication must have the elements of communication: Source, receiver, channel, message, noise, feedback.· Communication can be verbal/ non verbal or visual.· Communication can be accidental especially in non-verbalFunctions of communicationHuman beings communicate for various reasons. Here are some of the reasons why we must communicate:· To change in behavior· To influence others· To express our thoughts and emotions through words & actions.· It is a tool for controlling and motivating people.· It is a social and emotional process.· Communication for improving self-confidence· Entertain· Educate· Establish relationships· Inform· Solve problems· Make orders· Give directions
Forms of communication : Verbal, Paraverbal and Non-Verbal
Forms of Communicating Verbal CommunicationAll forms of communication can be categorized as either verbal or nonverbal. Both verbal and nonverbal communication can be subdivided into either vocal or non- vocal. Verbal communication involves using speech to exchange information with others. We usually communicate verbally in face-to-face conversations such as; meetings, interviews, conferences, speeches, phone calls e.t.c. Much of the communication that takes place between people is both verbal and non-verbal; that is, it is based on language and gestures.Verbal communication of the vocal category includes spoken language, while non- vocal verbal communication involves written communication as well as communicationthat is transmitted through transmitted through sign language, finger spelling, Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language.Paraverbal/paralinguistic/ paralanguage featuresParalinguistic or paralanguage features are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words. They add emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say. Paralinguistic features accompany verbal communication and are the vocal signals beyond the basic verbal message. Paralinguistic elements in a person's speech, convey meaning beyond the words and grammar used. Examples of paralinguistic features include pitch, rate, quality of voice and amplitude. Other forms of paralanguage can also include laughter or imitative speech. Prosody, which is the rhythm, pattern, stress, rate, volume, inflection and intonation of a person's speech, is also a form of paralanguage.People express meaning not just in what they say but in the way they say it. The paralinguistic features employed by a speaker provide hint to the meaning, communicate the speakers’ attitudes and convey their emotion. Paralinguistic features also alert the listener as to how to interpret the message. Many of these paralinguistic features are culturally coded and inherent in verbal communication, often at a subconscious level.Non-VerbalNon-verbal communication is a type of communication that employs gestures and body language. The term "body language" is sometimes used to denote non-verbal communications. "Body Language" is the communication of personal feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body-movements such as gestures, postures, facial expressions, touch, smell, walking styles and positions among others. These movements can be done either consciously or involuntarily; more often they ‘happen’ subconsciously, and are accompanied, or not accompanied, by words.There are basically three elements in any face-to-face communication. These three elements account differently for the meaning of the message:· Words account for 7%· Tone of voice accounts for 38% and· Body language accounts for 55% of the message.Our body language and tone of voice should be consistent with the words we use. This is only possible when we say what we mean to say and say it rightly. Otherwise we can confuse people and reduce the prospect of getting our message across to be understood. Non-verbal communication can lead to misunderstandings, communication failure and even conflicts if the interlocutors are careless.Non-verbal communication includes:(P)OSTURES & GESTURES (E)YE CONTACT (O)RIENTATION (P)RESENTATION (L)OOKS(E)PRESSIONS OF EMOTIONBody language and kinesics are based on the behavioral patterns of non-verbal communication. Body language can actually contradict verbal communications and reveal our inner feelings about any particular person or topic either intentionally or unintentionally.The way in which you fold your arms, cross your legs, sit, stand, walk, move your head, eyes, lips reveal what you may be thinking or feeling. For example, you may be sitting and conversing with a person; suddenly, he leans forward and with both arms clutches the chair. By doing so he non-verbally communicates to you his desire to end the meeting. Body language has shed new light on the dynamics of relationships.Hands GesturesHands and arms are used by most of us to communicate our thoughts. People rub arms together, keep their arms closed, and clinch the fists. All these tell what the person has in his mind involuntary. It is a way that people non-verbally communicate positive expectations. Hands clenched together seems to be a confident gesture as some people who use it are often smiling and sound happy. However, if the hands are clenched too tightly, it is indicative of frustration or hostile attitude.Eye Gestures/facial expressionFacial expression, offers the most readily observable group of gestures. We focus our eyes on the face more often than on any other part of the body, and the expressions we see there have widely accepted meanings.If a prospect's eyes are downcast and face turned away, you're being shut out, however, if the mouth move, he is probably considering your presentation. If his eyes engage yours for several seconds at a time with a slight, one-sided smile extending at least to nose level, he is weighing your proposal. It is only when you see 'eye to eye' with another person that a real basis for communication can be established. Other forms of nonverbal communication include: Touch, smell, distance.The number of people in a communication situation affects the use of non-verbal communication. The more the persons involved, the more complex the use and understanding of the non-verbal communication becomes. However, to decipher the non-verbal communication it is important to see, interpret and understand them holistically and in a context, while identifying the different types of personalities involved.
Communication Barriers and Levels
Levels of communication1. Intrapersonal (Within a person)2. Interpersonal (Face to face)3. Group communication4. Mass communication5. Inter country/ DevelopmentCommunication Barriers 1. Physiological BarriersPhysiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for example, by ill health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties. These may also affect one’s personality in many different and mostly negative ways. This can best be handled by working on developing a positive perception as certain physiological features contributing to barriers may not be curable.2. Physical BarriersPhysical barriers include:· Office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different status· Large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separate from others.· DistanceResearch shows that one of the most important factors in building cohesive teams is proximity. Proximity in different cultures is different and therefore needs to be taken in the right context. It has been observed that people coming from rural backgrounds with more physical space available may not feel comfortable in closed quarters as they tend to have larger personal spaces as compared to people living in urban conditions. This aspect alone can become a significant psychological barrier if they subconsciously feel “threatened” by inadvertent “invasion” of their personal space in case an urbanite approaches them in close proximity considering it as a normal personal space.3. Cultural BarriersCulture prescribes behavior. Humans can adapt to different culture once we come to accept it and appreciate that cultures are different so that we can be recognized from others and that no specific connotations need to be attached to one culture or the other.4. Language BarriersLanguage that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words, and jargon. When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global setting the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language.5. Interpersonal BarriersWithdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both refusals to be in touch with others.6. Psychological BarriersThere are 3 types of psychological barriers would be discussed as they are the most common ones.a. Perceptual barriersb. Emotional Barriers c. Experiential barriers. The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. A bad experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it and if that is not possible by altering the behaviors i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are painful. It is very interesting to note that how our experiences taint or color our perceptions. Perceptual barriers can significantly alter our understanding and thus affect our communication. They are deep rooted and work in conjunction with our experiences.Emotional barriersOne of the other chief psychological barriers to open and free communication is the emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. As mentioned earlier the roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others.Experiential barriersExperiential barriers on the other hand become barriers by virtue of not having experienced them leading to altered interpretation and comprehension. Our experience shapes our view of the world. For example, when children experience trauma at the hands of trusted adults (especially family members) their emotional link with the adult world is severed, creating distrust. They are left with three companions: guilt, fear and feelings of inferiority.7. StereotypesStereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. Stereotypes are usually negative attitudes which people use to justify discrimination of conflict against others. According to Pennington (1986) " there are two characteristics of stereotypes· People are categorized on the basis of very visible characteristics e.g. race, nationality, sex, dress and bodily appearance;· All members of a particular group are assumed to have the same characteristics; andThe effects of stereotyping are seen as gross over simplified and over generalized descriptions. They operate to overestimate differences existing between groups and under estimate differences within groups.Stereotypes distort reality since the over estimation between groups and under estimation within groups bear little relation to the truth.Stereotyping acts as a barrier to communication because people make pre- conceived judgment about people which are unfounded if their character does not relate to their appearance.Stereotyping has a halo effect. Halo effect is the use of a single attribute to describe a person or object fully. For example, if a person is friendly we may use this attribute to assume that they are punctual and good at their job. Another important aspect of stereotyping is perception.8. AuthorityBarriers to communication for one reason or the other often get neglected.Knowing them is synonymous to knowing about one’s own barriers sprouting out of one’s personality. Barriers to communication can lead to misunderstanding and confusion.
Elements of Communication : How to be a good communicator
How to be a good communicatorTo be a good communicator, one needs to:a) Express own reflections and ideas clearlyb) Develop relationshipsc) Provide feedback (answers, reacts)d) Be open to others’ feedback (accept others answer without prejudice, references etc.e) Respect attitudes and opinions of othersf) Be tolerant to different customs and culturesg) Give full attention to people while they are talking to you.h) Encourage other people to talk, and ask appropriate questions.i) Present your ideas so that others are receptive to your point of view.j) Treat people fairly and let others know how you want to be treated.k) Value teamwork and know how to build cooperation and commitment.l) Strive to understand other people and to be empathetic.m) Be able to easily win people’s trust and respect.n) Check to make sure you have understood what other people are trying to communicate.o) Follow through on your commitments.p) Be able to work with people you have difficulties with without becoming negative.Elements of CommunicationThere are models which try to explain the communication process. A model is an explanation of the occurrences in a phenomenon. Elements of communication have been explained in different models which attempt to explain the communication process. Communication is a two-way process that results in a shared meaning or common understanding between the sender and the receiver. An understanding of how communication works can help us to understand and improve our communication. The elements of communication enable us to understand how communication works. The basic communication model consists of five elements of communication: the sender, the receiver, the message, the channel and feedback. This is the originating point of any communication act. It is the source who gets the urge that necessitates communication for the purpose of satisfying that urge. The stronger the stimulus or the urge the greater is the need to communicate. The greater the need to communicate, the more the need is for effectiveness. The source is also referred to as the sender, or encoder.Encoding is the process of putting ones thoughts into words.Encoder is the person who translates his/her thoughts into meaningful words. ReceiverThe receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message. A receiver can be one person or an entire audience of people. A receiver is the eventual recipient of the message. The receiver is also the decoder of the message. Decoding of a message is as integral to communication as encoding it. Decoding is the process of giving meaning to the encoded message. It can also be referred to as extracting the embedded meaning or interpreting what was encoded by the sender. The ability of the receiver in decoding the message correctly is decisive in understanding the message in its holistic sense.Noise/ BarriersAnything that is competing the source’s and the receivers’ attention is called noise. Barriers to communication are the factors that contribute towards the total or partial loss or failure of the communication. In simple terms they can be referred to as those features that act as blocks to the desired outcome of any communication process. They are many and very multidimensional in nature. Noise can be internal or external.a) Internal: Noise that is coming from within the interlocutors such as a headache, anger, stress, e.t.cb) External noise: Noise from the environment such as; cars passing, children shouting, siren from an ambulance e.t.c.MessageThe message is the most crucial element of effective communication. A message can come in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just a comment. The message is not necessarily what the sender intends it to be. Rather, the message is what the receiver perceives the message to be. As a result, the sender must not only compose the message carefully, but also evaluate the ways in which the message can be interpreted.ChannelThe message travels from one point to another via a channel of communication. The channel sits between the sender and receiver. There are many channels, or types, of communication channels for example, from the spoken word to radio, television, an Internet site or something written, like a book, letter or magazine.Every channel of communication has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, one disadvantage of the written word, on a computer screen or in a book, is that the receiver cannot evaluate the tone of the message. For this reason, effective communicators word written communications clearly so they don't rely on a specific tone of voice to convey the message accurately. The advantages of television as a channel for communication include its expansive reach to a wide audience and the sender's ability to further manipulate the message using editing and special effects.FeedbackThe last element of effective communication is feedback. This is the response from the receiver and later the source. Feedback is the receiver's response or reaction to the sender's message. The receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making comments or just supporting the message that was delivered. Feedback helps the sender to determine how the receiver interpreted the message and how it can be improved. Without feedback the communication process breaks down. The feedback given determines the direction the communication process will take.A communication process that employs all the elements works as follows:The source has an urge–a need that requires being satisfied encodes the message in verbal and/or non-verbal language that is considered to best communicate the message according to the intent..In order to make that happen, it has to be in a form and format that conveys the intent in the best possible manner.This message is encapsulated in the linguistic conventions such as symbols i.e., words besides signs that can be referred to as non-verbal language.The message will go through a channel, a means of communication such as e-mail, face to face or phone conversation, letter, presentation etc.The receiver will then decode the message using conventions, cultural or contextual background, and language skills. The message that is received or interpreted might or might not be the same as the sent one and may not necessarily meet the intent of the messenger.
SQ4R method for effective reading
The SQ4R Method of reading effectivelySQ4R is a flexible reading strategy because it engages the reader during each phase of the reading process. Readers preview/SURVEY (S) the text material to develop predictions and set the purpose for the reading by generating QUESTIONS (Q) about the topic. They READ (1R) actively, searching for answers to those questions. They monitor their comprehension as they summarize WRITE (2R) & RECITE (3R). They evaluate their comprehension through REVIEW (4R) activities. Two general learning components must be addressed as you begin the reading process and the SQ4R method will activate them:First, place the reading in CONTEXT. What is the reading about and do you have any prior knowledge about this subject to help you extract the meaning that you are looking for? The SURVEY and SYSTEMATIC reading puts this process into motion. You get an overview that will "jog your memory" as you search for prior knowledge on the subject. Ask questions about what you don't know. Make the questions simple and general if you don't have much prior knowledge and more specific if this is an area of study that is familiar to you. Using these questions will GUIDE YOUR SPEED AND COMPREHENSION as you attempt to answer them.REMEMBER, THE STUDENT THAT IS ENGAGED IN READING IS MOTIVATED, STRATEGIC, KNOWLEDGEABLE, AND SOCIALLY INTERACTIVE.How to Use SQ4R1. Survey what you are about to read• Systematic Reading• Think about the title: What do you know about this subject?• What do I want to know?• Glance over headings and/skim the first sentences of paragraphs.• Look at illustrations and graphic aids.• Read the first paragraph.• Read the last paragraph or summary.2. QuestionTurn the title and sub-titles into wh-element question. This becomes the major purpose for your reading.• Write down any questions that come to mind during the survey.• Turn headings into questions.• Turn subheadings, illustrations, and graphic aids into questions.• Write down unfamiliar vocabulary and determine the meaning.3. Read Actively• Read to search for answers to the questions set.• Respond to objectives and use context clues for unfamiliar words.• React to unclear passages, confusing terms, and questionable statements by generating additional questions.4. Recite• Look away from the answers and the book to recall what was read.• Recite answers to the questions aloud or in writing.• Reread text for unanswered questions.5. wRite• Make "maps" for yourself.• Reduce the information• Reread or skim to locate and prove your points.• Write down the key terms and ideas in outline form.• Always read/question/recite before marking or taking down notes.• Check yourself against the text. Correct and add to your answer.6. Review• Answer the major purpose questions.• Look over answers and all parts of the chapter to organize the information.• Summarize the information learned by creating a graphic organizer (concept map) that depicts the main ideas, by drawing a flow chart, by writing a summary,• You can also summarize by participating in a group discussion, or by writing an explanation of how this material has changed your perceptions or applies to your life.
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Saahil
English Hons DU
These are notes creates by students/ teachers of University of Delhi. Refer to these for your exams. They are really helpful.
Alfahad Farooqi
BA Programme Assignment
These are notes creates by students/ teachers of University of Delhi. Refer to these for your exams. They are really helpful.