Knowledge in Philosophy of science
Brain conditions
Headache: There are many types of headaches; some can be serious but most are not and are generally treated with analgesics/painkillers.Stroke (brain infarction): Blood flow and oxygen are suddenly interrupted to an area of brain tissue, which then dies. A blood clot, or bleeding in the brain, are the cause of most strokes.Brain aneurysm: An artery in the brain develops a weak area that swells, balloon-like. A brain aneurysm rupture can causes a stroke.Subdural hematoma: Bleeding within or under the dura, the lining inside of the skull. A subdural hematoma may exert pressure on the brain, causing neurological problems.Epidural hematoma: Bleeding between the tough tissue (dura) lining the inside of the skull and the skull itself, usually shortly after a head injury. Initial mild symptoms can progress rapidly to unconsciousness and death, if untreated.Intracerebral hemorrhage: Any bleeding inside the brain.Concussion: A brain injury that causes a temporary disturbance in brain function. Traumatic head injuries cause most concussions.Cerebral edema: Swelling of the brain tissue in response to injury or electrolyte imbalances.Brain tumor: Any abnormal tissue growth inside the brain. Whether malignant (cancer) or benign, brain tumors usually cause problems by the pressure they exert on the normal brain.Glioblastoma: An aggressive, malignant brain tumor (cancer). Brain glioblastomas progress rapidly and are very difficult to cure.Hydrocephalus: An abnormally increased amount of cerebrospinal (brain) fluid inside the skull. Usually this is because the fluid is not circulating properly.Normal pressure hydrocephalus: A form of hydrocephalus that often causes problems walking, along with dementia and urinary incontinence. Pressures inside the brain remain normal, despite the increased fluid.Meningitis: Inflammation of the lining around the brain or spinal cord, usually from infection. Stiff neck, neck pain, headache, fever, and sleepiness are common symptoms.Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain tissue, usually from infection with a virus. Fever, headache, and confusion are common symptoms.Traumatic brain injury: Permanent brain damage from a traumatic head injury. Obvious mental impairment, or more subtle personality and mood changes can occur.Parkinson's disease: Nerves in a central area of the brain degenerate slowly, causing problems with movement and coordination. A tremor of the hands is a common early sign.Huntington's disease: An inherited nerve disorder that affects the brain. Dementia and difficulty controlling movements (chorea) are its symptoms.Epilepsy: The tendency to have seizures. Head injuries and strokes may cause epilepsy, but usually no cause is identified.Dementia: A decline in cognitive function resulting from death or malfunction of nerve cells in the brain. Conditions in which nerves in the brain degenerate, as well as alcohol abuse and strokes, can cause dementia.Alzheimer’s disease: For unclear reasons, nerves in certain brain areas degenerate, causing progressive dementia. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia.Brain abscess: A pocket of infection in the brain, usually by bacteria. Antibiotics and surgical drainage of the area are often necessary
Yimpangakum Imsong
Brain Test
Computed tomography (CT scan): A scanner takes multiple X-rays, which a computer converts into detailed images of the brain and skull.Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scan): Using radio waves in a magnetic field, an MRI scanner creates highly detailed images of the brain and other parts of the head.Angiography (brain angiogram): A special substance doctors call "a contrast agent" is injected into the veins, and travels into the brain. X-ray videos of the brain are taken, which can show problems in the brain's arteries.Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA): A special MRI scan of the brain's arteries. An MRA scan may show a blood clot or another cause for stroke.Lumbar puncture (spinal tap): A needle is inserted into the space around the spinal nerves, and fluid is removed for analysis. Lumbar puncture is often done if meningitis is suspected.Electroencephalogram (EEG): Brain activity is monitored through electrodes placed on the skin on the head. EEG can help diagnose seizures, or other brain problems.Neurocognitive testing: Tests of problem-solving ability, short-term memory, and other complex brain functions. Usually, neurocognitive testing is done through questionnaires.Brain biopsy: In rare situations, a very small piece of the brain is needed to make the diagnosis of a brain condition. Brain biopsies are generally done only when the information is needed to provide proper treatment.
Brain treatment
Brain TreatmentsThrombolytics: Clot-busting medicines injected into the veins can improve or cure some strokes if given within a few hours after symptoms start.Antiplatelet agents: Medicines like aspirin and clopidogrel (Plavix) help prevent blood clots. This can reduce the chance of a stroke.Cholinesterase inhibitors: These medicines can improve brain function slightly in mild or moderate Alzheimer’s disease. They do not slow or prevent Alzheimer’s disease.Antibiotics: When a brain infection is caused by bacteria, antibiotics can kill the organisms and make a cure more likely.Levodopa: A medicine that increases brain levels of dopamine, which is helpful in controlling symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.Brain surgery: An operation on the brain can cure some brain tumors. Brain surgery may be performed any time increased pressure in the brain threatens brain tissue.Ventriculostomy: A drain is placed into the natural spaces inside the brain (ventricles). Ventriculostomy is usually performed to relieve high brain pressures.Craniotomy: A surgeon drills a hole into the side of the skull to relieve high pressures.Lumbar drain: A drain is placed into the fluid around the spinal cord. This can relieve pressure on the brain and spinal cord.Radiation therapy: If cancer affects the brain, radiation can reduce symptoms and slow the cancer's growth.
Sore throat
OverviewA sore throat is pain, scratchiness or irritation of the throat that often worsens when you swallow. The most common cause of a sore throat (pharyngitis) is a viral infection, such as a cold or the flu. A sore throat caused by a virus resolves on its own.Strep throat (streptococcal infection), a less common type of sore throat caused by bacteria, requires treatment with antibiotics to prevent complications. Other less common causes of sore throat might require more complex treatment.SymptomsThroat anatomySymptoms of a sore throat can vary depending on the cause. Signs and symptoms might include:Pain or a scratchy sensation in the throatPain that worsens with swallowing or talkingDifficulty swallowingSore, swollen glands in your neck or jawSwollen, red tonsilsWhite patches or pus on your tonsilsA hoarse or muffled voiceInfections causing a sore throat might result in other signs and symptoms, including:FeverCoughRunny noseSneezingBody achesHeadacheNausea or vomitingWhen to see a doctorTake your child to a doctor if your child's sore throat doesn't go away with the first drink in the morning, recommends the American Academy of Pediatrics.Get immediate care if your child has severe signs and symptoms such as:Difficulty breathingDifficulty swallowingUnusual drooling, which might indicate an inability to swallowIf you're an adult, see your doctor if you have a sore throat and any of the following associated problems, according to the American Academy of Otolaryngology — Head and Neck Surgery:A sore throat that is severe or lasts longer than a weekDifficulty swallowingDifficulty breathingDifficulty opening your mouthJoint painEaracheRashFever higher than 101 F (38.3 C)Blood in your saliva or phlegmFrequently recurring sore throatsA lump in your neckHoarseness lasting more than two weeksSwelling in your neck or face
Working of Ear
Picture courtesy of Cochlear Ltd.Here is how the ear works normally:Sound is transmitted as sound waves from the environment. The sound waves are gathered by the outer ear and sent down the ear canal to the eardrum.The sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, which sets the three tiny bones in the middle ear into motion.The motion of the bones causes the fluid in the inner ear or cochlea to move.The movement of the inner ear fluid causes the hair cells in the cochlea to bend. The hair cells change the movement into electrical pluses.These electrical impulses are transmitted to the hearing (auditory) nerve and up to the brain, where they are interpreted as sound.
Liver disease
LIVER DISEASEThere are many diseases and disorders that can cause the liver to stop functioning properly. Some of the different causes of liver disease include viral infection, alcohol or other environmental toxins, autoimmune disease and genetics. These contributing factors can lead to a variety of types of liver disorders, such as hepatitis, fatty liver disease, alcoholic hepatitis, cancer or cirrhosis.The symptoms of liver disease can greatly decrease the quality of life for those afflicted and can even lead to death. Common symptoms can include abdominal pain, jaundice, digestive and metabolism problems, abnormal absorption of fats as well as nervous system disorders.In the United States, there are more than 38,000 deaths each year attributed to chronic liver disease or cirrhosis. Liver disease is generally managed by slowing down disease progression, for some types with lifestyle changes such as eliminating alcohol, improving diet and exercising regularly and in other cases with anti-viral or immunosuppressive medications.
Type 1 diabetes
TYPE 1 DIABETESType 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system attacks and destroys the beta cells in the pancreas that make insulin. People with this disease must inject themselves with insulin in order to stay alive. They must carefully monitor their blood sugar, and also balance their food intake and exercise. Long-term complications of type 1 diabetes include disabling or even life-threatening organ damage, including heart disease, kidney disease, blindness and nerve damage.More than one million Americans have type 1 diabetes, and the worldwide incidence of the disease is growing with the greatest increase in children under five-years-old. The disease accounts for 5 to 10 percent of all diagnosed diabetes in the United States.Type 1 diabetes, also called juvenile diabetes, usually occurs in children or young adults and is especially prevalent among people of Northern European heritage. Additionally, family members of someone who has been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes are 15 times more likely to develop the disease themselves.
ALLERGIES & ASTHMA
ALLERGIES & ASTHMAAllergies and asthma are immune mediated diseases that occur when the body’s immune system overreacts to a foreign substance (an allergen), such as pollen, animal dander, foods or medications, that in most people is generally harmless. People react to the proteins in these allergens with an antibody made by specialized immune cells that release chemicals which cause sneezing, itching in the nose, eyes and ears, and in rare cases the life-threatening reaction anaphylaxis. Asthma is often triggered by these types of allergic reactions. Allergies can range from mild to severe. For some people they can compromise quality of life and even be life-threatening. More than 25 percent of Americans suffer from allergies and asthma, with allergies affecting more than 50 million and asthma affecting approximately 25 million.Allergen specific immunotherapy (allergy vaccine therapy) remains the primary treatment for certain types of allergies. In this therapy, patients are vaccinated with increasing doses of allergens with the goal of improving the body’s immune tolerance to the substance. However, these current therapies require months to years of treatment and in some cases may also cause life-threatening symptoms such as low blood pressure and anaphylactic shock.
RELAPSING POLYCHONDRITIS
RELAPSING POLYCHONDRITISRelapsing polychondritis (RP) is a rheumatic autoimmune disease. It is a rare disease in which the immune system attacks the body’s cartilage. RP disease progression includes pain and deformity, which accompanies inflammation and deterioration of cartilage within the ear, nose, trachea and joints. RP research findings are also of interest because the disease is a true tissue-specific autoimmune disease which could enlighten our understanding of other autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Scleroderma
SCLERODERMAScleroderma is a rheumatic autoimmune disease of the connective tissue which causes skin thickening, spontaneous scarring, blood vessel disease and varying degrees of inflammation. As there is currently no cure for scleroderma, treatments generally focus on minimizing particular symptoms.In the United States, approximately, 300,000 people (1 in 1000) are affected by scleroderma. Although it is a rare disease, it can be devastating, and finding new treatments is vital. Women are four times more likely to be diagnosed with the disease. While it appears to run in families, as of yet, no gene associated with the disease has been identified.
Septic Tank and principle of working of the septic tank
Septic Tank and principle of working of the septic tank
Syed Sadique Hussain
Advantages and disadvantages of oxidation pond
Advantages and disadvantages of oxidation pond