Knowledge in COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH
HEDGING
WE WILL HOW HEDGING WORDS USED
H. R. Mahesh Reddy
HEDGING
WE WILL HOW HEDGING WORDS USED
Communication definitions, characteristics and functions
Communication SkillsCommunication is a key element in any human activity. Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this communication skill. Very often, we take the ease with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is. Communication takes place when we are supposedly at the same level of understanding and comprehension as other interlocutors. Common forms of communication include speaking, writing, gestures, touch, using pictures and broadcasting. Communication is therefore not what is said whether verbally or non-verbally, but what is understood.What is communication? Communication is a word derived from the Latin word communis or commūnicāre, which means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. Communication is the act of conveying intended meaning to another person through the use of mutually understood signs and language. Communication is the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another.Communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. The basic steps of communication are: the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message encoding, and transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally interpretation of the message by the recipient.Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. When you call or talk verbally to your friend, then you are said to be communicating with your friend.Characteristics of CommunicationThe characteristics of communication include:· Communication is a process: Communication is a 2 way process which involves; listening to others (Receiving) message Asserting/Expressing (Sending).· Communication is a dynamic: it is ever changing depending on the variables at play.· Communication is a complex a process.· Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning.· Communication involves the sharing of information using a code.· Communication occurs between people and sometimes animals· Communication is irreversible: once one has communicated something it cannot be recalled back.· Communication is a system· Communication must have the elements of communication: Source, receiver, channel, message, noise, feedback.· Communication can be verbal/ non verbal or visual.· Communication can be accidental especially in non-verbalFunctions of communicationHuman beings communicate for various reasons. Here are some of the reasons why we must communicate:· To change in behavior· To influence others· To express our thoughts and emotions through words & actions.· It is a tool for controlling and motivating people.· It is a social and emotional process.· Communication for improving self-confidence· Entertain· Educate· Establish relationships· Inform· Solve problems· Make orders· Give directions
Mousumi Manna
Forms of communication : Verbal, Paraverbal and Non-Verbal
Forms of Communicating Verbal CommunicationAll forms of communication can be categorized as either verbal or nonverbal. Both verbal and nonverbal communication can be subdivided into either vocal or non- vocal. Verbal communication involves using speech to exchange information with others. We usually communicate verbally in face-to-face conversations such as; meetings, interviews, conferences, speeches, phone calls e.t.c. Much of the communication that takes place between people is both verbal and non-verbal; that is, it is based on language and gestures.Verbal communication of the vocal category includes spoken language, while non- vocal verbal communication involves written communication as well as communicationthat is transmitted through transmitted through sign language, finger spelling, Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language.Paraverbal/paralinguistic/ paralanguage featuresParalinguistic or paralanguage features are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words. They add emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say. Paralinguistic features accompany verbal communication and are the vocal signals beyond the basic verbal message. Paralinguistic elements in a person's speech, convey meaning beyond the words and grammar used. Examples of paralinguistic features include pitch, rate, quality of voice and amplitude. Other forms of paralanguage can also include laughter or imitative speech. Prosody, which is the rhythm, pattern, stress, rate, volume, inflection and intonation of a person's speech, is also a form of paralanguage.People express meaning not just in what they say but in the way they say it. The paralinguistic features employed by a speaker provide hint to the meaning, communicate the speakers’ attitudes and convey their emotion. Paralinguistic features also alert the listener as to how to interpret the message. Many of these paralinguistic features are culturally coded and inherent in verbal communication, often at a subconscious level.Non-VerbalNon-verbal communication is a type of communication that employs gestures and body language. The term "body language" is sometimes used to denote non-verbal communications. "Body Language" is the communication of personal feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body-movements such as gestures, postures, facial expressions, touch, smell, walking styles and positions among others. These movements can be done either consciously or involuntarily; more often they ‘happen’ subconsciously, and are accompanied, or not accompanied, by words.There are basically three elements in any face-to-face communication. These three elements account differently for the meaning of the message:· Words account for 7%· Tone of voice accounts for 38% and· Body language accounts for 55% of the message.Our body language and tone of voice should be consistent with the words we use. This is only possible when we say what we mean to say and say it rightly. Otherwise we can confuse people and reduce the prospect of getting our message across to be understood. Non-verbal communication can lead to misunderstandings, communication failure and even conflicts if the interlocutors are careless.Non-verbal communication includes:(P)OSTURES & GESTURES (E)YE CONTACT (O)RIENTATION (P)RESENTATION (L)OOKS(E)PRESSIONS OF EMOTIONBody language and kinesics are based on the behavioral patterns of non-verbal communication. Body language can actually contradict verbal communications and reveal our inner feelings about any particular person or topic either intentionally or unintentionally.The way in which you fold your arms, cross your legs, sit, stand, walk, move your head, eyes, lips reveal what you may be thinking or feeling. For example, you may be sitting and conversing with a person; suddenly, he leans forward and with both arms clutches the chair. By doing so he non-verbally communicates to you his desire to end the meeting. Body language has shed new light on the dynamics of relationships.Hands GesturesHands and arms are used by most of us to communicate our thoughts. People rub arms together, keep their arms closed, and clinch the fists. All these tell what the person has in his mind involuntary. It is a way that people non-verbally communicate positive expectations. Hands clenched together seems to be a confident gesture as some people who use it are often smiling and sound happy. However, if the hands are clenched too tightly, it is indicative of frustration or hostile attitude.Eye Gestures/facial expressionFacial expression, offers the most readily observable group of gestures. We focus our eyes on the face more often than on any other part of the body, and the expressions we see there have widely accepted meanings.If a prospect's eyes are downcast and face turned away, you're being shut out, however, if the mouth move, he is probably considering your presentation. If his eyes engage yours for several seconds at a time with a slight, one-sided smile extending at least to nose level, he is weighing your proposal. It is only when you see 'eye to eye' with another person that a real basis for communication can be established. Other forms of nonverbal communication include: Touch, smell, distance.The number of people in a communication situation affects the use of non-verbal communication. The more the persons involved, the more complex the use and understanding of the non-verbal communication becomes. However, to decipher the non-verbal communication it is important to see, interpret and understand them holistically and in a context, while identifying the different types of personalities involved.
Communication Barriers and Levels
Levels of communication1. Intrapersonal (Within a person)2. Interpersonal (Face to face)3. Group communication4. Mass communication5. Inter country/ DevelopmentCommunication Barriers 1. Physiological BarriersPhysiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for example, by ill health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties. These may also affect one’s personality in many different and mostly negative ways. This can best be handled by working on developing a positive perception as certain physiological features contributing to barriers may not be curable.2. Physical BarriersPhysical barriers include:· Office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different status· Large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separate from others.· DistanceResearch shows that one of the most important factors in building cohesive teams is proximity. Proximity in different cultures is different and therefore needs to be taken in the right context. It has been observed that people coming from rural backgrounds with more physical space available may not feel comfortable in closed quarters as they tend to have larger personal spaces as compared to people living in urban conditions. This aspect alone can become a significant psychological barrier if they subconsciously feel “threatened” by inadvertent “invasion” of their personal space in case an urbanite approaches them in close proximity considering it as a normal personal space.3. Cultural BarriersCulture prescribes behavior. Humans can adapt to different culture once we come to accept it and appreciate that cultures are different so that we can be recognized from others and that no specific connotations need to be attached to one culture or the other.4. Language BarriersLanguage that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words, and jargon. When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global setting the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language.5. Interpersonal BarriersWithdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both refusals to be in touch with others.6. Psychological BarriersThere are 3 types of psychological barriers would be discussed as they are the most common ones.a. Perceptual barriersb. Emotional Barriers c. Experiential barriers. The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. A bad experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it and if that is not possible by altering the behaviors i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are painful. It is very interesting to note that how our experiences taint or color our perceptions. Perceptual barriers can significantly alter our understanding and thus affect our communication. They are deep rooted and work in conjunction with our experiences.Emotional barriersOne of the other chief psychological barriers to open and free communication is the emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. As mentioned earlier the roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others.Experiential barriersExperiential barriers on the other hand become barriers by virtue of not having experienced them leading to altered interpretation and comprehension. Our experience shapes our view of the world. For example, when children experience trauma at the hands of trusted adults (especially family members) their emotional link with the adult world is severed, creating distrust. They are left with three companions: guilt, fear and feelings of inferiority.7. StereotypesStereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. Stereotypes are usually negative attitudes which people use to justify discrimination of conflict against others. According to Pennington (1986) " there are two characteristics of stereotypes· People are categorized on the basis of very visible characteristics e.g. race, nationality, sex, dress and bodily appearance;· All members of a particular group are assumed to have the same characteristics; andThe effects of stereotyping are seen as gross over simplified and over generalized descriptions. They operate to overestimate differences existing between groups and under estimate differences within groups.Stereotypes distort reality since the over estimation between groups and under estimation within groups bear little relation to the truth.Stereotyping acts as a barrier to communication because people make pre- conceived judgment about people which are unfounded if their character does not relate to their appearance.Stereotyping has a halo effect. Halo effect is the use of a single attribute to describe a person or object fully. For example, if a person is friendly we may use this attribute to assume that they are punctual and good at their job. Another important aspect of stereotyping is perception.8. AuthorityBarriers to communication for one reason or the other often get neglected.Knowing them is synonymous to knowing about one’s own barriers sprouting out of one’s personality. Barriers to communication can lead to misunderstanding and confusion.
Elements of Communication : How to be a good communicator
How to be a good communicatorTo be a good communicator, one needs to:a) Express own reflections and ideas clearlyb) Develop relationshipsc) Provide feedback (answers, reacts)d) Be open to others’ feedback (accept others answer without prejudice, references etc.e) Respect attitudes and opinions of othersf) Be tolerant to different customs and culturesg) Give full attention to people while they are talking to you.h) Encourage other people to talk, and ask appropriate questions.i) Present your ideas so that others are receptive to your point of view.j) Treat people fairly and let others know how you want to be treated.k) Value teamwork and know how to build cooperation and commitment.l) Strive to understand other people and to be empathetic.m) Be able to easily win people’s trust and respect.n) Check to make sure you have understood what other people are trying to communicate.o) Follow through on your commitments.p) Be able to work with people you have difficulties with without becoming negative.Elements of CommunicationThere are models which try to explain the communication process. A model is an explanation of the occurrences in a phenomenon. Elements of communication have been explained in different models which attempt to explain the communication process. Communication is a two-way process that results in a shared meaning or common understanding between the sender and the receiver. An understanding of how communication works can help us to understand and improve our communication. The elements of communication enable us to understand how communication works. The basic communication model consists of five elements of communication: the sender, the receiver, the message, the channel and feedback. This is the originating point of any communication act. It is the source who gets the urge that necessitates communication for the purpose of satisfying that urge. The stronger the stimulus or the urge the greater is the need to communicate. The greater the need to communicate, the more the need is for effectiveness. The source is also referred to as the sender, or encoder.Encoding is the process of putting ones thoughts into words.Encoder is the person who translates his/her thoughts into meaningful words. ReceiverThe receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message. A receiver can be one person or an entire audience of people. A receiver is the eventual recipient of the message. The receiver is also the decoder of the message. Decoding of a message is as integral to communication as encoding it. Decoding is the process of giving meaning to the encoded message. It can also be referred to as extracting the embedded meaning or interpreting what was encoded by the sender. The ability of the receiver in decoding the message correctly is decisive in understanding the message in its holistic sense.Noise/ BarriersAnything that is competing the source’s and the receivers’ attention is called noise. Barriers to communication are the factors that contribute towards the total or partial loss or failure of the communication. In simple terms they can be referred to as those features that act as blocks to the desired outcome of any communication process. They are many and very multidimensional in nature. Noise can be internal or external.a) Internal: Noise that is coming from within the interlocutors such as a headache, anger, stress, e.t.cb) External noise: Noise from the environment such as; cars passing, children shouting, siren from an ambulance e.t.c.MessageThe message is the most crucial element of effective communication. A message can come in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just a comment. The message is not necessarily what the sender intends it to be. Rather, the message is what the receiver perceives the message to be. As a result, the sender must not only compose the message carefully, but also evaluate the ways in which the message can be interpreted.ChannelThe message travels from one point to another via a channel of communication. The channel sits between the sender and receiver. There are many channels, or types, of communication channels for example, from the spoken word to radio, television, an Internet site or something written, like a book, letter or magazine.Every channel of communication has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, one disadvantage of the written word, on a computer screen or in a book, is that the receiver cannot evaluate the tone of the message. For this reason, effective communicators word written communications clearly so they don't rely on a specific tone of voice to convey the message accurately. The advantages of television as a channel for communication include its expansive reach to a wide audience and the sender's ability to further manipulate the message using editing and special effects.FeedbackThe last element of effective communication is feedback. This is the response from the receiver and later the source. Feedback is the receiver's response or reaction to the sender's message. The receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making comments or just supporting the message that was delivered. Feedback helps the sender to determine how the receiver interpreted the message and how it can be improved. Without feedback the communication process breaks down. The feedback given determines the direction the communication process will take.A communication process that employs all the elements works as follows:The source has an urge–a need that requires being satisfied encodes the message in verbal and/or non-verbal language that is considered to best communicate the message according to the intent..In order to make that happen, it has to be in a form and format that conveys the intent in the best possible manner.This message is encapsulated in the linguistic conventions such as symbols i.e., words besides signs that can be referred to as non-verbal language.The message will go through a channel, a means of communication such as e-mail, face to face or phone conversation, letter, presentation etc.The receiver will then decode the message using conventions, cultural or contextual background, and language skills. The message that is received or interpreted might or might not be the same as the sent one and may not necessarily meet the intent of the messenger.
Models of Communication
MODELS OF COMMUNICATIONThe purpose of a “model” is to offer a visual representation of a concept with the intent of facilitating its understanding. Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).Traditionally speaking, there are three standard models of the communication process:Linear, Interactive, and Transactional, and each offers a slightly different perspective on the communication process.Linear ModelThe linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens. Laswell’s (1948)The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages.Interactive ModelSchramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways.The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.Transactional ModelThe transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.There are three implications in the transactional model:i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually changing as well.ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements. There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no message without a source.iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self- esteem.Transactional model of communication takes into account “noise” or interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver simultaneously.
Effective Communication
Effective CommunicationAlthough we can all communicate, not all our communication acts are effective. We must all strive to be effective communicators.So, what is effective communication?This is that communication which produces results. It is communication where the intended message is delivered clearly, and the desired feedback is achieved. It is communication that does not give room for misunderstanding. It is the best form of communication.Communication can be effective or it can be misunderstood leading to ineffectiveness. Meaning communication must be effective. Ineffective communication is expensive to the participants because it blocks results. In other words communication is a matter of effectiveness. Effectiveness is a measure of outcome. Effective communication therefore results in the form of desired outcome.Effective Communication is communication that conveys information to another person efficiently and effectively and so achieves desired outcome.It is important to note that not all communication are effective. This course aims to help the learners to become effective communicators both at the university and later in their professional fields.Communication is a process that can be marked with error such as with messages muddled (i.e., mixed up by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient).Miscommunication is avoidable. However, if this is not detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, waste efforts and miss opportunities. In fact, communication is successful only when both the sender and the receiver reach a common understanding regarding the same information as a result of the communication process.Effective communication is about receiving information from others with as little distortion as possible. Communication is a matter of effectiveness, which is dependent on the interlocutors’ (speakers’) communication competency. In other words its effectiveness is dependent on one’s competency in communication. We can therefore say that communication involves intents and efforts from both the sender of the message and the receiver.Effective Communication SkillsEffective Communication skills must include: communicating using· Eye contact & visible mouth· Body language· Checking for understanding· Smiling face· Summarizing what has been said· Encouragement to continue· Asking some questions· silence
7 C's of Effective Communication
The 7 Cs of CommunicationThe 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports, and presentations are well constructed and clear so your audience gets your message. According to the 7Cs, communication needs to be:· Clear.· Concise.· Concrete.· Correct.· Coherent.· Complete.· Courteous.1. ClearWhen writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your purpose in communicating with this person? If you’re not sure, then youraudience won’t be sure either. To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it’s easy for your reader to understand yourmeaning. People shouldn’t have to “read between the lines” and make assumptions on their own to understand what you’re trying to say.2 .ConciseWhen you are concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief. Your audience doesn’t want to read six sentences when you could communicate your message in three.3.ConcreteWhen your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you’re telling them. There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts. Your message is solid.Look at these two examples: For Example:a) The Lunchbox Wizard will save you time every day.b) How much time do you spend every day packing your kids’ lunches? No more! Just take a complete Lunchbox Wizard from your refrigerator each day to give your kids a healthy lunch AND have more time to play or read with them!4. CorrectWhen your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct communication is also error free communication.5. CoherentWhen your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points are connected and relevant to the main topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.6. CompleteIn a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if applicable, take action. Does your message include a “call to action”, so that your audience clearly knows what you want them to do? Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times, locations, and so on?7. Courteous/considerationCourteous communication is friendly, open, and honest and does not illicit emotions. There are no hidden insults or passive aggressive tones. You keep your reader’s viewpoint in mind, and you’re empathetic to their needs. You must always put yourself in the shoes of the person you are talking to and ask yourself how you would feel if you were to be addressed the way you are addressing your receiver.Consideration in communication creates a healthy work environment.
Planning your Presentation
A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. A presentation can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a video conference. A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will often contain a 'persuasive' element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive additional funding for a project.Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging presentations to a variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the structure of your presentation, the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the body language you convey. To be an effective presenter, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered.Planning your PresentationIt can be helpful to plan your presentation in terms of key steps, as follows:a) Set your objective. A simple sentence can be a good means of defining your purpose in giving the presentation, and will begin to determine the content.(Objective is a short statement which tells what you plan to achieve. For example, you may plan that)Try to complete the following sentence:‘As a result of my presentation, my audience will be able to…..i) Explain the methods of preventing HIV/AIDS.’ii) See their role in interdisciplinary learning more clearly,b) Decide what the main purpose of your talk is e.g;--to inform, persuade, motivate or change things.-What do you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?c) Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and who they are. Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be realistic about this. Find out what level of knowledge and experience those attending will have about your topic, so that you know where to aim the material. Is the audience likely to have any preconceptions or misconceptions about the subject that you need to address and put right? How might your audience use what you have to say?d) Know your setting: Find out about the equipment –audiovisual aids etc. that will be available. Check out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you decide on type of seating arrangements), and other facilities.e) Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk.f) Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my message across? What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How much time will I need?g) Structure your talk.
Structure of Presentation
Structuring Your PresentationThis is one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The structure should be clear to both you and your audience. Develop your visual aids: For example, will you use a flipchart, whiteboard power point, overhead projector or data projector etc. to clarify important points and aid understanding?NB: Do not use too many slides/points.Prepare your delivery notes, according to the structured outline.Different authors advocate different formats for structuring a presentation, each of which has their merits (Hartley and Bruckman, 2002; Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).The structure of a presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion.i) Introduction:Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set the scene.Ways of getting your audience’s attention include;• asking a rhetorical or intriguing question,• providing a relevant and interesting fact,• giving an anecdote,• outlining the valuable information you hope the audience will gain from the presentation,• telling them why they need to know the information,• giving a quote or making a dramatic prediction.Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking about the subject matter of your presentation by, for example, a statement of your mainobjective. It can also be helpful to present the structure to your talk, by explaining briefly how you plan to proceed with it.ii) The Main Body:Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much detail as your audience needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember too many points. Once you have decided on the key points, organize them into a sequence that makes sense to you. This sequence may take various forms, including being chronologically based, problem-solution based, simple-complex based etc. (Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).Explain and build your points using supporting information and evidence.iii) Conclusion:There are various ways of concluding a presentation including• changing the pace,• using a new visual aid,• summarizing your main points,• drawing the conclusion and its importance,• making recommendations,• asking for questions,• getting feedback,• asking for or recommending particular actions,• getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of action,• Finally end by thanking the group for their time and attention.Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are coming to a close; eg. ‘And now, before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc.Try to end on a strong note through the use of tactics detailed above. Research has long since shown that we tend to remember the opening and closing parts of a presentation over the detail in the middle.
Delivery of Presentation
DeliveryDeVito (1990) outlines four main types of delivery:1. Impromptu: This involves giving a talk with no prior planning, and is often the least preferred method. Sometimes however, we do not have an opportunity to prepare and are called on to speak at short notice. Take a few moments to write some key points down on a card to help give you some structure, and do not panic. Others will be aware that you had only a short time to prepare. Also keeping the style relaxed and conversational, so that it seems impromptu (even if this is not the case)can be a very effective style.2. Extemporaneous: Extemporaneous speech is a “carefully prepared, but delivered without notes or text.” It is speaking before a group on a topic you are familiar with, using very few notes. Extemporaneous speeches are presentations that must be given without any notes or slides and with minimum preparation time, usually less than 30 minutes. This involves cue cards or slides on which you summarize the main points which you then flesh out.3. Memorized: This approach involves learning and repeating a manuscript. This is more difficult when giving longer presentations in that there is a lot of material to be memorized. However, a useful tip is to memorize the first few lines to get you started.4. Reading from a manuscript: This involves speaking from a prepared manuscript. However, while this can feel the safest option, try to use it as a guide as far aspossible rather than reading it word for word, as your delivery could otherwise sound stilted. Practice and rehearse in order to remember key points. Ultimately, choose the method, or combination of methods, that is least stressful for you.