ph measurement
In chemistry, pH (/piːˈeɪtʃ/, denoting 'potential of hydrogen' or 'power of hydrogen'[1]) is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Lower pH values correspond to solutions which are more acidic in nature, while higher values correspond to solutions which are more basic or alkaline. At room temperature (25 °C or 77 °F), pure water is neutral (neither acidic nor basic) and has a pH of 7. The pH scale is logarithmic and inversely indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution (a lower pH indicates a higher concentration of hydrogen ions). This is because the formula used to calculate pH approximates the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration[a] of hydrogen ions in the solution. More precisely, pH is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion.[2] At 25 °C, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. The neutral value of the pH depends on the temperature, being lower than 7 if the temperature increases. The pH value can be less than 0 for very strong acids, or greater than 14 for very strong bases.[3] The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement.[4] Primary pH standard values are determined using a concentration cell with transference, by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode. The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or a color-changing indicator. Measurements of pH are important in chemistry, agronomy, medicine, water treatment, and many other applications.
Subham Bera
enhanced distillation
Distillation is the process of separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation. Distillation may result in essentially complete separation (nearly pure components), or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components in the mixture. In either case, the process exploits differences in the relative volatility of the mixture's components. In industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process, not a chemical reaction. Distillation has many applications. For example: The distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates other fermentation products of commercial value. Distillation is an effective and traditional method of desalination. In the petroleum industry, oil stabilization is a form of partial distillation that reduces the vapor pressure of crude oil, thereby making it safe for storage and transport as well as reducing the atmospheric emissions of volatile hydrocarbons. In midstream operations at oil refineries, fractional distillation is a major class of operation for transforming crude oil into fuels and chemical feed stocks.[2][3][4] Cryogenic distillation leads to the separation of air into its components – notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon – for industrial use. In the chemical industry, large amounts of crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to separate them, either from other products, from impurities, or from unreacted starting materials. An installation used for distillation, especially of distilled beverages, is a distillery. The distillation equipment itself is a still
extraction
In biology and medicine Comedo extraction, a method of acne treatment Dental extraction, the surgical removal of a tooth from the mouth In computing and information science Data extraction, the process of retrieving data out of data sources The process of reversing data compression, a.k.a. decompression The process of choosing elements from a source document, in linguistics Other uses in science and technology Root extraction, in mathematics, the computation of a nth root Extraction (chemistry), the separation of a substance from a matrix Extraction (firearms), the act of removing a spent cartridge from the chamber of a firearm. Fragrance extraction, the process of obtaining fragrant oils and compounds from raw materials Resource extraction, the process of locating, acquiring and selling any resource Petroleum extraction, the process of recovering petroleum from the ground Ancestry or origin of a person
level measurement
Level of measurement or scale of measure is a classification that describes the nature of information within the values assigned to variables.[1] Psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens developed the best-known classification with four levels, or scales, of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.[1][2] This framework of distinguishing levels of measurement originated in psychology and is widely criticized by scholars in other disciplines.[3] Other classifications include those by Mosteller and Tukey,[4] and by Chrisman
measurement of pressure
Pressure measurement is the analysis of an applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are called pressure meters or pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good example, as it uses the surface area and weight of a column of liquid to both measure and indicate pressure. Likewise the widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device, which both measures and indicates and is probably the best known type of gauge. A vacuum gauge is a pressure gauge used to measure pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric pressure, which is set as the zero point, in negative values (e.g.: −15 psig or −760 mmHg equals total vacuum). Most gauges measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point, so this form of reading is simply referred to as "gauge pressure". However, anything greater than total vacuum is technically a form of pressure. For very accurate readings, especially at very low pressures, a gauge that uses total vacuum as the zero point may be used, giving pressure readings in an absolute scale. Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors that can transmit the pressure reading to a remote indicator or control system (telemetry).
nmr spectroscopy 1
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy or magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), is a spectroscopic technique to observe local magnetic fields around atomic nuclei. The sample is placed in a magnetic field and the NMR signal is produced by excitation of the nuclei sample with radio waves into nuclear magnetic resonance, which is detected with sensitive radio receivers. The intramolecular magnetic field around an atom in a molecule changes the resonance frequency, thus giving access to details of the electronic structure of a molecule and its individual functional groups. As the fields are unique or highly characteristic to individual compounds, in modern organic chemistry practice, NMR spectroscopy is the definitive method to identify monomolecular organic compounds. Similarly, biochemists use NMR to identify proteins and other complex molecules. Besides identification, NMR spectroscopy provides detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. The most common types of NMR are proton and carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy, but it is applicable to any kind of sample that contains nuclei possessing spin
nmr spectroscopy 2
NMR spectra are unique, well-resolved, analytically tractable and often highly predictable for small molecules. Different functional groups are obviously distinguishable, and identical functional groups with differing neighboring substituents still give distinguishable signals. NMR has largely replaced traditional wet chemistry tests such as color reagents or typical chromatography for identification. A disadvantage is that a relatively large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required, although it may be recovered through a workup. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated magic angle spinning machine and may not give equally well-resolved spectra. The timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum. Although large amounts of impurities do show on an NMR spectrum, better methods exist for detecting impurities, as NMR is inherently not very sensitive - though at higher frequencies, sensitivity is higher
PLATE AND FRAME FILTRATION
Plate and frame Filter Press The main part of plate and frame filter press is a set of filter chambers consist by filter plates and filter frames in alternating order. When working, the slurry will be transferred by feeding pump from the feeding hole on the thrust plate to all chambers , under the pressure of feeding pump, solid particles in the slurry will be trapped into the filter chambers and form into filter cakes slowly, liquid through out the filter clothes and come out of outlet holes. Solid and liquid finally be separated after 1 filtration cycle.
THERMODYNAMICS
The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was quickly extended to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions. Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged. Statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, concerns itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach in an axiomatic formulation, a description often referred to as geometrical thermodynamics.
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation, and properties of matter. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic physical quantities, but may be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering, but also in other complex fields such as meteorology.
A COMPREHENSIVE INTRODUCTION TO WATER FOOTPRINY
WATER FOOT-PRINT MEANS VOLUME OF FRESH WATER USED TO PRODUCE A PRODUCT, SUMMED OVER THE VARIOUS PRODUCT CHAIN. IT MEASURES THE CONSUMPTION AND CONTAMINATION OF FRESH WATER.EXCEPT WATER FOOT PRINT, THERE ARE ANOTHER KIND OF FOOT PRINTS LIKE ECOLOGICAL,CARBON, NITROGEN FOOT PRINTS WHICH ARE NOT DISCUSSED HERE. FOR MORE INFORMATION, THERE ARE REFERENCES INCLUDED HERE. YOU CAN GO THROUGH IT.
MATH IN DAILY LIFE
THIS MAINLY FOR THE B.ED STUDENTS. IF OTHERS ARE INTERESTED , THEY DEFINITELY CAN READ IT. THIS DISCUSSES WHERE AND HOW MATH IS USED IN OUR DAILY LIFE. FROM NATURE TO SPACE, WHAT IS ITS APPLICATION AND HOW IT IS APPLIED - BRIEFLY DISCUSSED IN THIS TOPIC . FROM MORE INFORMATION, GO THROUGH THE REFERENCE SECTION.